In the early 20th century, America was plagued. Not with disease but with nutritional deficiency, specifically iron deficiency. The population, at the time, had been suffering from widespread cases of iron deficiency anemia (Mitchell, 2024) , which is a condition where one's body cannot produce enough hemoglobin because of the lack of iron, leading to reduced oxygen delivery throughout the bloodstream and symptoms of dizziness, fatigue, and shortness or breath. With high rates of iron deficiency anemia throughout America in 1941, companies began looking for solutions (Niemesh, 2015) . The implementation a process called food fortification after World War II is largely considered a success in food systems and public health efforts, but are these efforts complete? How can we use food fortification to bolster our existing systems today? Figure 1: Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia and why it was such a pressing issue in the 1940s. The history of food fortification Food fortification is the process of adding vitamins, minerals, and other essential micronutrients into food to increase their nutritional value for public health purposes. The first instance of food fortification in the US was fortifying salt with iodine to compensate for iodine deficiencies within the population (Leung et al., 2012) . Later in the 1940s, when iron deficiency became a more u urgent public health issue, bread and flour products became a new target of interest. To expand from bread and flour products, people began to look for other alternatives (Whittaker et al., 2001) . Due to its convenience and presence in approximately 90% of consumer households, cereal was a logical choice for the next fortified food (Amidor, 2020) .  More recently, in 1996, the FDA administered regulations to enrich cereals with folic acid (Whittaker et al., 2001) , a synthetic form of the compound folate (“Folate”, 2012) which is essential in protein metabolism. Folic acid also plays key roles in producing healthy red blood cells, which is necessary for women during pregnancy and fetal development. These changes were implemented to reduce the chances of neural tube defects during pregnancy. Now, cereal has been fortified to also include various B vitamins, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, calcium, and zinc ( Fortified Cereals , n.d.) . Figure 2: Nutrition Facts of Honey Nut Cheerios. Note the percentages of each micronutrient, vitamin, and mineral. The process of fortifying cereal with iron To fortify cereal specifically for iron, non-heme iron is typically used. Non-heme iron is derived from plants and is commonly found in plant-based foods. It is not to be confused with heme iron which comes from animal products since it binds to animal proteins and muscular tissue. Non-heme iron can also be isolated from animal products, but that is only due to the fact that some animals consume plant sources (“Iron,” 2019) .  Non-heme iron makes up the majority of western diets, approximately 85-90%. Unlike heme iron, it is less easily absorbed into the body, but it can be enhanced with the consumption of vitamin C, perfect when drinking a glass of orange juice, for example (Tan, 2017) . The specific form of non-heme iron is typically found in the form of ferrous sulfate or electrolytic iron that is added during manufacturing of the cereal. These compounds are mixed into the dough before being shaped and baked (Rabinowitz, 2025) . Using non-heme is also stable, cost-effective, and easy to incorporate into processed foods without altering their texture (Panoff, 2024) . Figure 3: Schematic of how flour products are fortified. Downsides to Fortified Cereal Although fortified cereal provides necessary nutrients as opposed to unfortified cereals, people should still cautiously consume them. One study conducted in 2001 by Whittaker et al.  found that the majority of cereal brands contain more than the labeled percentages of both folic acid and dietary iron (Whittaker et al., 2001) . And, with most consumers eating more than one serving size per day, they may be at risk for overconsuming these nutrients. Eating cautiously and in moderation is the best way to prevent excessive intake. Cereals also tend to be high in added sugars. In fact, according to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, breakfast cereals are one of the highest sources of added sugar in an American’s diet. Additionally, because of the additional processing fortification brings, most cereals are low in fiber, which is necessary for healthy digestion (Foley, 2026) . This poses the question, can cereal fortification only come at the expense of exacerbating other nutritional needs? In addition, one study demonstrated that calcium may inhibit how much non-heme iron is taken up. With milk as a high source of calcium, cereal paired with milk may not be conducive to optimal iron absorption in the intestinal lining. In a paper written by Lönnerdal, a researcher at the University of California-Davis in 2010, it is mentioned that calcium binds to the same protein—called the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) —as non-heme iron and engages in competition or interference. If calcium binds the DMT1 protein first, then the non-heme iron cannot, and therefore, non-heme iron has a harder time being absorbed by intestinal cells. Figure 4: Iron uptake by enterocytes (intestinal absorptive cells). The process by which dietary iron (Fe) is absorbed into the cell through the DMT1 protein. If calcium was present, it could take up the space in the DMT1 receptor that the iron binds to, rendering iron absorption more difficult. Towards the end of the study, the study speculates that calcium inhibition may only be short-term, and show no concern to long-term effects (Lönnerdal, 2010) ; however, another study from 2011 observed that calcium may cause greater inhibition when consumed in more than 800mg or the equivalent of milk in about 2.5 servings of cereal (Gaitán et al., 2011) . If even the most obvious confounding variable, milk, can obstruct the initial purpose of fortified cereal, what are other factors influencing iron absorption that have not been considered yet?  Key Takeaways Fortified cereal is a primary example of how the food systems that can be redesigned to benefit public health are oftentimes also imperfect and incomplete. Although the government was future-oriented to recognize iron deficiency as an urgent public health crisis, was it executed well? Are there ways to fortify food without drawbacks? Can we improve how cereal delivers nutrients without raising added sugars or diminishing fiber? What are other factors that nutrition-related aspects fortification may have negatively impacted? Are there other foods capable of being fortified? Cereal serves as just one example of the questions that researchers, manufacturers, and public health experts still need to consider. The question of possibility still lies ahead, but with active engagement, knowledge, and innovation, there may be a future where food fortification will be beneficial, sustainable, and without the negative side effects seen now. References Amidor, T. (2020, March 16). Cereals and Fortified Nutrients: What You Need to Know About the Changing Levels . US News & World Report. https://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/eat-run/articles/cereals-and-fortified-nutrients Folate (Folic Acid)—Vitamin B9 • The Nutrition Source. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/folic-acid/ Foley, J. (2026, May 5). What Is Fortified Cereal? Benefits, Drawbacks, and How to Choose—GoodRx . GoodRx. https://www.goodrx.com/well-being/diet-nutrition/what-is-fortified-cereal Fortified Cereals—Vitamins and Minerals . (n.d.). Nestlé Cereals. Retrieved February 8, 2026, from https://www.nestle-cereals.com/mena/me-en/nutrition/fortification Gaitán, D., Flores, S., Saavedra, P., Miranda, C., Olivares, M., Arredondo, M., López de Romaña, D., Lönnerdal, B., & Pizarro, F. (2011). Calcium does not inhibit the absorption of 5 milligrams of nonheme or heme iron at doses less than 800 milligrams in nonpregnant women. The Journal of Nutrition , 141 (9), 1652–1656. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.138651 Iron. (2019, September 16). The Nutrition Source . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/iron/ Leung, A. M., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N. (2012). History of U.S. Iodine Fortification and Supplementation. Nutrients , 4 (11), 1740–1746. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4111740 Lönnerdal, B. (2010). Calcium and Iron Absorption—Mechanisms and Public Health Relevance. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research , 80 (45), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000036 Mitchell, K. (2024, February 23). Iron Deficiency Anemia (Low Iron): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment . WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/iron-deficiency-anemia Niemesh, G. T. (2015). Ironing Out Deficiencies: Evidence from the United States on the Economic Effects of Iron Deficiency. Journal of Human Resources , 50 (4), 910–958. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.50.4.910 Panoff, L. (2024, May 31). Iron in Baby Cereal: Best Uses, Safety, and the...  Else Nutrition. https://elsenutrition.com/a/resources/nutrition/iron-in-baby-cereal-importance Rabinowitz. (2025, September 25). High Iron Cereal & Iron Fortified Cereals . Smart Eats. https://smarteatspantry.com/blogs/iron/guide-to-iron-fortified-cereals Tan, V. (2017, June 3). How to Increase the Absorption of Iron from Foods  [4/24/2023]. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/increase-iron-absorption Whittaker, P., Tufaro, P. R., & Rader, J. I. (2001). Iron and folate in fortified cereals. Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 20 (3), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2001.10719039 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Rachel Linder from Eat this, Not That!

Some of the most consumed herbs and spices were popularized due to their medicinal  properties. Turmeric, for example, was first used in India over 4000 years ago in a system of holistic medicine called Ayurveda. This versatile spice was used to improve digestion, relieve arthritis, to inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms, etc. It was uncovered in its chemical composition that turmeric contains the compound curcumin, which is known to inhibit signal transduction pathways responsible for tumor growth. It has demonstrated promising efficacy in treating cancer, diabetes, metabolic syndromes and some neurological disorders in a clinical study with a diverse trial group (Kunnumakkara et al., 2023). Even today, it still has the same roles in medicine and food, as a common supplement or in meals as turmeric powder (Kato, 2025) . There are hundreds of examples like turmeric of plants which are known not just for their taste, but their health benefits too. This article explores the journey of medicine from these plants in their purest form to the pills we consume daily.  Figure 1: Display of tumeric   Evolution of therapeutical herbs   The first known written record of medicinal herbs comes from a Sumerian clay tablet from 2600 BCE. It listed over 250 plants used in different herbal recipes (Norman, 2009) .   Medicine back then was based on trial and error, and knowledge was mostly passed down by word of mouth. Herbal remedies were also closely tied to religion and spirituality—healers or shamans would often give out plant-based treatments during ceremonies. In the Middle Ages, herbal medicine started becoming more organized. Monasteries in Europe grew herb gardens and began documenting how different plants were used. But even then, a lot of it was still mixed with superstition (Hajar, 2012) . Later on, in the 19th century, scientists started isolating the actual compounds in herbs, which helped make stronger and more targeted remedies. This shift eventually led to herbal medicine being used less, but many of those same plants are still part of food today just in new forms, like teas, powders, oils, or supplements.  Figure 2. A juxtoposition of modern medicine and medicinal herbs. Modern uses of herbal medicine in food Although herbal treatments aren’t common, the benefits of adding spices to diets has  been thoroughly studied. A few examples are how cinnamon can lower blood sugar,  turmeric can reduce inflammation, and ginger can help relieve nausea (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2025 ) .   These spices were used thousands of years ago, for these same benefits, and modern studies have shown that these truly improve health. You eat these herbs and spices every day, so with every bite, remember the powerful impact they can have on your health. References  5 Spices with Healthy Benefits . (2024, June 20). John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/5-spices-with-healthy-benefits Hajar, R. (2012). The Air of History (Part II) Medicine in the Middle Ages. Heart Views : The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association , 13 (4), 158–162. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-705X.105744 Kato, J., & University Researchcentre, K. I. (2025). The Evolution of Herbal Medicine: From Traditional Practices to Scientific Validation. Eurasian Experiment Journal of Biological Sciences , 6 (11), 10–17. Kunnumakkara, A. B., Hegde, M., Parama, D., Girisa, S., Kumar, A., Daimary, U. D., Garodia, P., Yenisetti, S. C., Oommen, O. V., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2023). Role of Turmeric and Curcumin in Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases: Lessons Learned from Clinical Trials. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science , 6 (4), 447–518. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.2c00012 The Largest Surviving Medical Treatise from Ancient Mesopotamia: History of Information . (n.d.). Jeremy Norman’s History of Information. Retrieved January 31, 2026, from https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2155 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Sarah Shwager

In labs around the world, scientists have been growing real meat without raising animals, which is called cultivated meat. As global meat demand is expected to increase by 73% from 2010 to 2050, cultivated meat can address challenges in sustainability, ethics, and food safety ( Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011) . From Cells to Meat Scientists first take a small sample, or biopsy, from a living animal and isolate muscle stem cells. These cells are then cultured in bioreactors filled with media containing proteins, vitamins, and growth factors that encourage cellular reproduction (Good Food Institute, n.d.) . Figure 1. A bioreactor by Ark Biotech designed specifically for cultivated meat (Houser, 2024) . The cells are grown on an edible scaffold that structurally supports their assembly and is responsible for the final texture of the meat. The scaffold provides the cells with oxygen and nutrients. Bioengineers typically design scaffolds to resemble the structural and biochemical properties of the extracellular matrix, which supports the cells in natural tissues (Levi et al., 2022) . Advantages Cultivated meat solves problems across many areas. Environmentally, it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 78-96%, water consumption by 82-96%, and land use by 99% compared to conventional meat production (Tuomisto & de Mattos, 2011) . Ethically, it eliminates the need for animal slaughter while reducing suffering, as animals would only provide the initial biopsies through minimally invasive procedures. From a food safety perspective, production in sterile, controlled environments dramatically reduces contamination risks from pathogens like E. coli  or Salmonella   (Powell et al., 2024) . Additionally, scientists may eventually customize fat and protein content or modify the composition in other ways, potentially creating healthier meat products (Heid, 2016) . Industry Outlook Currently, the cost of production is high, resulting in products more expensive than traditional meat. One reason for this being the cell culture media and scaffolds are difficult and expensive to obtain for producers. The first lab-grown beef burger in 2013 cost $325,000 to produce, though production costs have been decreasing. As of 2023, lab-grown beef costs an average of $17 per pound to produce. Additionally, despite advances in technology, cultivated meat still differs from conventional meat in taste and texture. Many consumers also consider lab-grown meat to be unnatural, with 50% of respondents in a June 2023 survey indicating they were not interested in trying cultivated meat (Fabino, 2023) . Figure 2. The first lab-grown beef burger, cooked with butter and sunflower oil (Jha, 2013) . In 2023, there were 156 companies worldwide involved in the cultivated meat industry. Two countries, the United States and Singapore, allow for the sale of cultivated meat (Benson & Greene, 2023) . Still, there are significant challenges in its commercialization, both in the technology and in its perception by consumers. Key takeaways Cultivated meat integrates biotechnology and food science to possibly address major global challenges. However, technical, economic, and consumer acceptance barriers suggest it may be years before cultivated meat becomes mainstream. For now, cultivated meat remains more dormant in the field of experimental technology. References Ahuja, V., Brinkley, C., Gerosa, S., Henderson, B., Honhold, N., Kramer, S., Makkar, H., McLeod, A., Miers, H., Muehlhoff, E., C., O., Opio, C., Rosenthal, J., Slingenbergh, J., Starkey, P., Steinfeld, H., & Tasciotti, L. (2011). World Livestock 2011 Livestock in food security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . Cell-Cultivated Meat: An Overview . (n.d.). [Legislation]. Congress.Gov . Retrieved January 24, 2026, from https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47697 Fabino, A. (2023, October 17). Lab-Grown Meat Prices Expected to Drop Dramatically—Newsweek . Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/lab-grown-meat-cost-drop-2030-investment-surge-alternative-protein-market-1835432 Heid, M. (2016, September 14). You Asked: Should I Be Nervous About Lab-Grown Meat?  TIME. https://time.com/4490128/artificial-meat-protein/ Houser, K. (2024, April 26). This startup is trying to solve lab-grown meat’s biggest problem. Freethink . https://www.freethink.com/science/bioreactor-cultivated-meat Jha, A., & correspondent, science. (2013, August 6). First lab-grown hamburger gets full marks for “mouth feel.” The Guardian . https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/05/world-first-synthetic-hamburger-mouth-feel Levi, S., Yen, F.-C., Baruch, L., & Machluf, M. (2022, August). Scaffolding technologies for the engineering of cultured meat: Towards a safe, sustainable, and scalable production—ScienceDirect . ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224422001790?via%3Dihub Powell, D. J., Li, D., Smith, B., & Chen, W. N. (2025). Cultivated meat microbiological safety considerations and practices. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 24 (1), e70077. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.70077 The science of cultivated meat | GFI . (2021, January 27). https://gfi.org/science/the-science-of-cultivated-meat/ Tuomisto, H. L., & de Mattos, M. J. T. (2011). Environmental impacts of cultured meat production. Environmental Science & Technology , 45 (14), 6117–6123. https://doi.org/10.1021/es200130u Thumbnail image: (Jha, 2013)

As soon as the clock strikes 2 p.m., time seems to slow, my movements appear more sluggish, energy levels plummet, and all I want to do is go to sleep. To many people, especially other high school students around me, the usual afternoon crash or post-lunch drowsiness may seem typical. But, what if I told you that recent research has demonstrated the lack of a single molecule called butyrate may be responsible for these dips in energy, and increasing its production can lead to steady energy throughout the day. Introducing Butyrate Butyrate  is a short-chain fatty acid produced by microbes within our gut microbiome typically in our lower intestinal tract near our colon. In the colon, microbes metabolize soluble fibers and resistant starches that we eat and ferment them. During fermentation, the microbes convert acetyl-CoA into butyryl-CoA, which can then be transformed into butyrate (Esquivel-Elizondo et al., 2017) . Figure 1. Cycle of Acetyl CoA --> Butyryl CoA --> Butyrate. How our Body Uses Butyrate Since butyrate is produced in the lower intestinal tract, our colon cells can use the compound as energy. In fact, butyrate is the preferred energy source for colon cells, even over glucose. When colonic epithelial cells metabolize butyrate, they are able to produce mucin , a substance that lines the gut and is critical for intestinal defense. In addition to protecting the intestinal lining, butyrate also has anti-inflammatory effects that contribute to preventing colon-related diseases such as ulcerative colitis , chronic inflammation that is characterized by ulcers forming on the colon and rectum, and colorectal cancer   (Esquivel-Elizondo et al., 2017) , which is unfortunately increasing among younger adults (Masciadrelli, 2023) . In the short term, butyrate can also increase insulin sensitivity , lowering glucose spikes after eating large meals (like lunch), and promote steadier, consistent energy throughout the day instead of crashes. Figure 2. Closeup of the mucous barrier that serves as an essential component of intestinal defense and health. Negative Effects of Too Little Butyrate If butyrate is lower in concentration, colonic cells have less fuel to work with, leading to less production of the intestinal mucus, and an increased risk of  leaky gut , which can cause various undesirable symptoms such as bacterial toxins entering the bloodstream, inflammatory response like brain fog, fatigue and joint aches, food sensitivities, skin issues, and headaches (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . How Can We Promote the Production of Butyrate With all of the negative effects of not having enough butyrate, this poses the question of how we can generate sufficient amounts of butyrate to function optimally. As mentioned before, butyrate is produced by specific types of microbes—Firmicutes bacteria being a prime example ( Kalkan et al., 2025 ) —which feed off of resistant starches and fiber , or carbohydrates consumed that remain undigested while passing through the small intestine into the large intestine. Ingesting food high in these dietary fibers can improve butyrate production. Some examples of foods high in resistant starches and fiber include berries, whole grains like oats and quinoa, beans, chickpeas, apples, sweet potatoes, broccoli, asparagus, and sweet potatoes (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . Additionally, omega-3 fatty acids  have also correlated to promoting growth of butyrate-producing bacteria while suppressing the growth of harmful bacteria ( Salsinha et al., 2025) . To consume more omega-3 fatty acids, common sources include salmon and sardines while plant-based options include chia seeds, seaweed, and walnuts (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . Figure 3. Array of foods high in resistant fiber and starch and omega-3 fatty acids. Key Takeaways While researchers have yet to conduct further studies to demonstrate the efficacy of butyrate in randomized human trials, various studies have supported the essential role of butyrate in maintaining a healthy lower intestinal tract, which can impact a wide variety of bodily processes such as insulin selectivity in the short term to disease prevention long term. While butyrate is just one example of how important it is to nurture a healthy gut microbiome by consuming enough dietary fiber and resistant starch, learning more about how we can foster healthy diet habits can improve our daily lives, starting with one less 2 p.m., post-lunch energy crash. References Esquivel-Elizondo, S., Ilhan, Z. E., Garcia-Peña, E. I., & Krajmalnik-Brown, R. (2017). Insights into Butyrate Production in a Controlled Fermentation System via Gene Predictions. mSystems , 2 (4), 10.1128/msystems.00051-17. https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00051-17 Grondin, J. A., Kwon, Y. H., Far, P. M., Haq, S., & Khan, W. I. (2020). Mucins in Intestinal Mucosal Defense and Inflammation: Learning From Clinical and Experimental Studies. Frontiers in Immunology , 11 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.02054 Kalkan, A. E., BinMowyna, M. N., Raposo, A., Ahmad, M. F., Ahmed, F., Otayf, A. Y., Carrascosa, C., Saraiva, A., & Karav, S. (2025). Beyond the Gut: Unveiling Butyrate’s Global Health Impact Through Gut Health and Dysbiosis-Related Conditions: A Narrative Review. Nutrients , 17 (8), 1305. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081305 Leonid Kim MD (Director). (2025, December 23). Butyrate: Protect Your Brain, Lower Blood Sugar and Fix Leaky Gut  [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8Qj2Vc0iNE Masciadrelli, M. (2023, March 29). Why Are Colorectal Cancer Rates Rising Among Younger Adults?  Yale School of Medicine.   https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/with-colorectal-cancer-rates-rising-among-younger-adults-a-yale-cancer-center-expert-explains-there-may-be-more-factors-behind-this-worrisome-trend/ Salsinha, A. S., Araújo-Rodrigues, H., Dias, C., Cima, A., Rodríguez-Alcalá, L. M., Relvas, J. B., & Pintado, M. (2025). Omega-3 and conjugated fatty acids impact on human microbiota modulation using an in vitro  fecal fermentation model. Clinical Nutrition , 49 , 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.04.007 Thumbnail image: Leschelle et al. 2000

Everyone has heard the saying "breakfast is the most important meal of the day," and there is truth behind it. In fact, people who regularly skip breakfast are 21% more likely to suffer from a cardiovascular disease event (Ofori-Asenso et al., 2019) . Meal-skipping has become more prominent over the last 40 years, as the average person has become increasingly busier. There has been a transition away from 3 set meals a day to snacking and varied mealtimes (Kant and Graubard, 2016) .  Additionally, when trying to improve health through food, few pay attention to or reduce unhealthy food habits related to the timing of meals. Instead, many focus solely on the content of their meals. Bad meal timing, specifically a schedule that isn’t matched to a person’s circadian rhythm, has surprisingly many consequences. This article explores why and how eating at the ‘wrong’ time impacts health, and how to reduce this impact. (Ferreira, 2019) Circadian Eating Rhythm What determines when the body is best primed to eat? It’s the body’s internal clock, the circadian rhythm , which determines sleep-cycles, hormone regulation, and digestion. A person’s unique circadian clock is determined by their exposure to light, which could be the sun or artificial light. When someone stays up late or wakes up early in the morning, their circadian clock is not aligned with light and will adjust over time. Timing of meals is so important, because all digestive organs have their own internal clocks, working more efficiently during the day, peaking on average around noon, and slowing down into the night. Additionally, the hormones released throughout the day, like insulin , ghrelin , and leptin , which manage sugar levels, hunger, and fullness, are all regulated by the circadian rhythm ("Circadian Rhythm", 2024)  The body prepares itself to eat during a certain period during the day and disrupting its natural timeline means the body undergoes increased strain during the digestive process.  (Smith, 2016) When Should You Eat? Generally, eating during the day while the body is naturally ready for it is considered the healthiest. However, there are still many meal timing structures that one can use depending on their goals. One of the most popular of these is time restricted eating or intermittent fasting . There are many variations of these including eating all meals in an early 8 hour window, restricting calorie intake 2 of the 7 days of the week, alternate day fasting, etc. (Snyder, 2023) .  These methods have been extremely successful in weight-loss, as the body has a higher metabolism and is more insulin-sensitive in the morning and afternoon so less fat is stored, blood sugar levels are controlled, and energy usage of food is more efficient. (Lee et al., 2024) . Also, as all these eating patterns focus on eating earlier in the day, the digestive system does not need to work during the night and sleep quality is improved. Key Takeaways The human body is built to eat meals at certain time periods throughout the day based on its circadian rhythm. The exact time of meals depends from person to person and it can be optimized by experimenting with different meal timings and seeing what feels the best. Although eating a late-night meal or skipping breakfast once won’t permanently damage you, doing so over a period of months and years will increase the risk of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Next time you’re planning a meal, remember it's not just what you eat that matters, but also when you eat it. References Circadian Rhythm . (2024). Cleveland Clinic.   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/circadian-rhythm Ferreira, Â. (2019, July 26). Meal timing and weight loss: Is there a relationship? Blog Oficial Zumub.Com .   https://www.zumub.com/blog/en/meal-timing-weight-loss-relationship/ Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2015). 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics , 115 (1), 50–63.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.354 Lee, D. Y., Jung, I., Park, S. Y., Yu, J. H., Kim, K. J., Kim, N. H., Yoo, H. J., Kim, S. G., Choi, K. M., Baik, S. H., & Kim, N. H. (n.d.). Attention to Innate Circadian Rhythm and the Impact of Its Disruption on Diabetes . Retrieved July 20, 2025, from   https://www.e-dmj.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.4093%2Fdmj.2023.0193 Ofori-Asenso, R., Owen, A. J., & Liew, D. (2019). Skipping Breakfast and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Death: A Systematic Review of Prospective Cohort Studies in Primary Prevention Settings. Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease , 6 (3), 30.   https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd6030030 Smith, Y. (2016, March 6). What is the Circadian Rhythm?  News-Medical.   https://www.news-medical.net/health/Circadian-Rhythm.aspx Snyder, C. (2023, June 21). Intermittent Fasting Methods Reviewed: Pros and Cons . Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/6-ways-to-do-intermittent-fasting Thumbnail image: Rudie Strummer

High cholesterol levels are associated with illnesses such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. This has caused a negative stigma around consuming cholesterol, with many diets and health regimens focusing on specifically cutting out this molecule. Yet, it is present in and essential for animal cells; the body produces cholesterol to help regulate the functions of many organs. So, what is cholesterol and why is too much of it dangerous? Foods with high levels of cholesterol (D'Angelo Friedman, 2025) . What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a lipophilic molecule : it combines with lipids and travels through the bloodstream in large molecules called lipoproteins . There are a few types of cholesterol which are classified by what type of lipoprotein they travel with. The most common of these are HDL and LDL cholesterol (what is known as good and bad cholesterol, respectively). HDL cholesterol is considered ‘good’ because it removes the ‘bad’ LDL cholesterol which, in excess, causes plaque build-ups in the arteries. It is important to note that both HDL and LDL cholesterol are necessary; cholesterol is a required for the synthesis of Vitamin D, sex and steroid hormones, and the production of bile in the liver. The liver produces 80% of the cholesterol needed to function, while the rest comes from food intake (What is Cholesterol?, 2025) . Major cholesterol sources are foods with saturated fat (e.g. red meat) or trans-fat (packaged and fried foods) (Friedman, 2025) .  Every year there is increased processed and packaged food intake, leading to increased cholesterol levels. That’s why it is so important to have a balanced diet and avoid the dangers of too much cholesterol.  HDL vs. LDL cholesterol impact on arteries ("What is Cholesterol", 2025) . Impact of cholesterol imbalances The body naturally regulates cholesterol levels by slowing production when higher levels are present. This negative feedback has limits though, which can be reached when food intake spikes cholesterol levels. When a person has high cholesterol, excess lipids form plaque in the arteries (Alila Medical Media, 2018) . This plaque can build up over the years, having seemingly no effect on health. When the arteries are significantly clogged or blocked, they stop working efficiently, putting strain on the heart. High cholesterol levels, over time, are associated with many illnesses, most notably cardiovascular disease. Key Takeaways Cholesterol is vital for many bodily functions and is present in every cell of the body. Although it is necessary, too much of anything is bad for you. High cholesterol levels are common in the US, and dangerous as it leads to many illnesses. By making healthy food choices and getting regular screenings, people can manage their cholesterol and reduce their risk of heart disease. References Alila Medical Media (Director). (2018, May 1). Cholesterol Metabolism, LDL, HDL and other Lipoproteins, Animation  [Video recording].  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9dghtf7Z7fw Blood Cholesterol—What is Blood Cholesterol?  (2024, April 17). National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.   https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/blood-cholesterol D’Angelo Friedman, J. (2025, April 11). Foods To Eat & Avoid For High Cholesterol . HealthCentral.   https://www.healthcentral.com/condition/high-cholesterol/high-cholesterol-foods Huff, T., Boyd, B., & Jialal, I. (2025). Physiology, Cholesterol. In StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470561/ Hughes, A. (2025, May 10). Here’s what actually causes high cholesterol (and how to cut it) . BBC Science Focus Magazine. https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/how-to-lower-cholesterol LeWine, H. E. (2010, April 6). 11 Foods that Lower Cholesterol—Harvard Health Publishing . Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/11-foods-that-lower-cholesterol What Is Cholesterol?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/23922-what-is-cholesterol HDL (Good), LDL (Bad) Cholesterol and Triglycerides . (2024, February 19). American Heart Association. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/cholesterol/hdl-good-ldl-bad-cholesterol-and-triglycerides Thumbnail image: (Hughes, 2025)

As people become more conscious of what food is going into their body, measuring macronutrients, micronutrients, and calories has become increasingly popular. Most packaged foods in the United States carry labels providing such nutritional information on their label. At the back of the packaging is the Nutrition Facts Label which has an important component displayed - the serving size. The best way to interpret how much nutrition you are consuming requires us to understand the typical serving size each individual has consumed of that food product. Based on how many serving sizes you eat, you can calculate how much nutritional value you have consumed as indicated on the label. (Feller, 2025) What is a "Serving Size" and who calculates it? In the United States, the FDA oversees how much food makes up a serving size — a quantity that is highly dependent on what type of food it is. The FDA explains, "Serving sizes must be based on the amount of food people typically consume, rather than how much they should consume. Serving sizes reflect the amount people typically eat and drink” ("Serving Size", 2024) . The FDA uses the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to estimate the amount of each food the average American, eats in one sitting. This survey, run by the CDC, runs interviews, physical exams, and laboratory tests, collecting data from randomly selected people to better understand everything regarding their health. These serving sizes are simply the averages of the survey's results, an approximation of how much each person eats in one sitting ("About NHANES", 2024) .  It’s important to understand that the serving size is not a recommendation of how much to eat, but just a standard unit of measure for all foods.  Why is Serving Size So Important? The serving size is so useful because it allows people to compare similar products, and it gives context to all the numbers on the nutritional label. By using this unit of measure, people can easily compare products to determine which is healthier, offers more protein, or better meets their nutritional needs, allowing them to make smarter, more informed choices about what they eat ( Food Portions , 2021) . (Falkenheimer, 2021) Key Takeaways For us to regulate our food intake, it is important to understand the food labels and specifically serving sizes. With obesity and diabetes on the rise due to the addictive nature of certain foods, we should limit our consumption and monitor the effects of unhealthy foods. Serving size allows us to connect how much food we consume with the various nutritional measures of it, giving us a quantitative understanding of the quality and amount of food we eat. References CDC. (2024, December 18). About NHANES . National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.   https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about/index.html Falkenheimer, A. (2021, August 18). Compare Serving Sizes—Easy Food Health Decisions. Eatiquette .   https://eatiquette.io/compare-food-serving-sizes/ Feller, M. (2025, January 24). I’m a Registered Dietitian, and These Are the Only Things I Look for on Nutrition Facts Labels . Kitchn.   https://www.thekitchn.com/how-to-read-nutrition-facts-label-23705776 Food Portions: Choosing Just Enough for You - NIDDK . (2021, July). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.   https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/just-enough-food-portions Serving Size on the Nutrition Facts Label. (2024). FDA .   https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/serving-size-nutrition-facts-label

Have you ever felt bloated, gassy, or uncomfortable after enjoying a scoop of ice cream or an extra cheesy pizza? These are all common symptoms of lactose intolerance, a condition that makes it difficult for people to digest milk and dairy products. Though lactose intolerance is not necessarily dangerous, living with it can be very inconvenient. Luckily, science has created ways to relieve discomfort that comes along with intolerance. Causes Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down lactose, which is a sugar found in dairy products. Lactase splits lactose into two sugars: glucose and galactose. These sugars are then easily absorbed by the bowel ( LACTASE: Uses, Side Effects, and More , 2020) . Figure 1. Structural diagram of lactase splitting lactose into glucose and galactose (Kohlmeier, 2013) . To digest breast milk, infants produce large amounts of lactase. As the child is weaned off breast milk and baby formula, the child’s digestive system adapts to digest other foods. For some people, this means they no longer produce enough lactase to adequately process foods containing lactose, known as primary lactase deficiency (Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care [IQWiG], 2024) . This kind of lactose intolerance is more common in people of African and Asian descent, a phenomenon attributed to the different lifestyles of their ancestors. A Cornell University study found that people whose ancestors could raise dairy herds safely and economically tend to be able to digest milk. People whose ancestors lived in extreme climates or regions with deadly cattle diseases often lose the ability to digest milk after infancy. For this reason, up to 75% of African Americans and American Indians and 90% of Asian Americans are lactose intolerant (Lang, 2005) . Other people develop secondary lactase deficiency, which is a bowel disease resulting in reduced lactase production. This disease is often caused by celiac disease or inflammation in the small intestine, like in Crohn’s disease (IQWiG, 2024) . Diagnosis and Symptoms The most common method to test for lactose intolerance is the hydrogen breath test. For this test, the patient consumes a liquid containing large amounts of lactose. The patient’s breath is then checked repeatedly for high levels of hydrogen, which indicate lactose intolerance. Another method, called the lactose intolerance test, checks how a patient’s digestive system absorbs lactose. After drinking a liquid containing lactose, the patient will have their blood sugar taken over a two-hour period. If the patient’s blood sugar levels remain the same, then they are most likely lactose intolerant (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.) . Having enough lactase would allow the lactose to be broken down into glucose, raising the patient’s blood sugar level. For infants and small children, their stools are tested for fatty acids, which indicate lactose intolerance. Figure 2. A patient undergoing a hydrogen breath test (Rocky Mountain Gastroenterology, n.d.) . Symptoms of lactose intolerance begin thirty minutes to two hours after consuming foods with lactose. They may include stomach cramps, nausea, bloating, gas, and diarrhea, but they vary across individuals. Their severity depends on the amount of lactose consumed and the amount of lactase produced by the body (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d. ) . Living with Lactose Intolerance To manage lactose intolerance, people should avoid not only dairy products but also certain canned, frozen, and prepared foods. Lactose is added to processed foods such as bread, cereal, and salad dressings (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.) . Lactose-intolerant people can also take lactase tablets before consuming foods with lactose or add lactase drops to drinks (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2018) . Dairy-free milk alternatives, such as oat milk, almond milk, and soy milk, allow people to enjoy typical milk-based products without the discomfort caused by lactose. Figure 3. Lactaid pills to manage lactose intolerance (LACTAID ® , n.d.) . Key Takeaways Lactose intolerance is a common condition resulting from inadequate production of lactase by the body. Its prevalence in certain ethnicities can be explained by the diets of early human populations. Fortunately, lactase tablets and dairy alternatives have made it easier for people to enjoy their favorite foods without pain. Of course, there are many lactose-intolerant people who decide that any discomfort is worth it for the chance to enjoy ice cream, cheese, or a latte—at least every once in a while. References Hydrogen Breath Test Services in the Denver Metro. (n.d.). Rocky Mountain Gastroenterology . Retrieved August 16, 2025, from  https://www.rockymountaingastro.com/services/hydrogen-breath-test/ Kohlmeier, M. (2013). Lactase—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics . ScienceDirect.   https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/lactase LACTAID® Original Strength Caplets for Lactose Intolerance . (n.d.). Lactaid. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.lactaid.com/products/lactaid-original-strength-caplets LACTASE: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews . (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-540/lactase Lactose Intolerance . (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/lactose-intolerance Lactose intolerance: Learn More – Causes and diagnosis of lactose intolerance. (2024). In InformedHealth.org . Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG).   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310263/ Lang, S. S. (2005, June 1). Lactose intolerance seems linked to ancestral struggles with harsh climate and cattle diseases, Cornell study finds | Cornell Chronicle . Cornell Chronicle.   https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2005/06/lactose-intolerance-linked-ancestral-struggles-climate-diseases Treatment for Lactose Intolerance—NIDDK . (n.d.). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance/treatment

A seasoned professor and researcher in Food Science and Technology at University of California-Davis, Dr. Daniela Barile has made and continues to make waves in the field. She primarily studies the chemical composition of certain foods and their connection to promoting gut health. With her hard-working team, she has conducted a plethora of research on food products like wine, milk, and plant-based foods. Dr. Barile’s work not only highlights nutritional value in previously conceived food waste, but also provides avenues for how to repurpose them to improve health in the future. What Drew Dr. Barile to Food Science? Dr. Barile originally had no intention of pursuing food science. Instead, she studied pharmaceutical chemistry at University of Piemonte Orientale in Novara, Italy, originally aspiring to find a pharmacological cure for cancer. After achieving her Masters degree, she started working in a pharmacy. However, Dr. Barile soon realized that the prevailing pharmaceutical model emphasized statins and other medications, leaving less space for preventive or lifestyle-based approaches. Statins are drugs used to lower cholesterol for patients with or susceptible to cardiovascular diseases (“Statins”, n.d.) , and like many medications  also have side effects. When she realized that a lot of the conditions that the pharmaceutical industry pushed to be treated with prescription medications were often diet-related, Dr. Barile re-evaluated her career in pharmaceutics. Dr. Barile quotes, “working in the pharmacy is what opened my eyes to the medicines that patients were coming in to purchase, for conditions that could have been prevented with diet and exercise.” It was her realization that sparked her exploration of the food science world, particularly in what consumers are eating and how food impacts health. Using her newfound knowledge and drive to learn more about the science of food, she returned to the University of Piemonte Orientale to pursue a Ph.D. degree in food bioactive compounds , which are non-essential components of food that can regulate metabolic activity, biochemical processes, and physiological functions. Because of these properties, bioactive compounds are an emerging subject of study due to their ability to induce health benefits beyond typical nutritional value (Teodoro, 2019) .  Figure 1. A Chart of the Categories of Food Bioactive Compounds (Câmara et al., 2021) . Serendipitously, after presenting a poster in Belgium at a conference, she was invited to the University of California-Davis (UC-Davis) as a visiting scholar in 2007. From then on, she became a professor and researcher at UC-Davis in Food Science and Technology, and is still advancing her career there to this day. Past Research Projects With a thorough catalogue of research initiatives, Dr. Barile has tackled numerous questions in the food science field. Some examples — in a list of many more — are her research on identifying bioactive compounds in dairy milk and side streams , which are unused byproducts of food after production (Bambridge-Sutton, 2023) . Dr. Barile, using her expertise in bioactive compounds from her Ph.D., analyzed the side streams such as grape pomace , or the solid fruit residues such as seeds, skin, and flesh that are left from producing grape juice or wine, as well as chickpea and bean aquafaba , or the liquid produced from cooking the legumes. In 2021, Barile and her team studied chardonnay marc, also known as grape pomace from the wine chardonnay. Living in California, the largest wine-producing state in the United States, she identified that the wine industry produced large amounts of agricultural waste every year (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2020 as cited in Sinrod et al., 2021 ).  Figure 2. Graphic of Grape Pomace (“Unveiling the Hidden Health”, 2024) Previous studies have demonstrated that grape skin and seeds are rich in polyphenols , a category of bioactive compounds found in plant foods (“What Do Polyphenols”, n.d.) , which can benefit human health by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammatory markers ( Zern et al., 2005  as cited in S inrod et al., 2021 ). With her team, Dr. Barile wanted to investigate whether there were other compounds that contributed to the health benefits that were mainly credited to the polyphenols in chardonnay marc. So she turned to oligosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are indigestible carbohydrates, known as prebiotics , or food for good gut-microbes that maintain good gut health (“Oligosaccharides”, 2022) . Before, oligosaccharides were not studied in depth due to previous lack of technology needed for analysis (Sinrod et al., 2021) . In her study, Dr. Barile’s team identified significant levels of oligosaccharides and phenolic compounds , which are compounds with anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (Albuquerque et al., 2021) . Their findings are important because they give greater context to how chardonnay marc and grape pomace in general can be repurposed and valorized for nutritional value. More recently in 2024, Barile explored oligosaccharide content in bean and chickpea aquafaba. Beans and chickpeas are legumes , which are known for their dietary fiber and protein content, and they are one of the staple foods in many cultures around the world (Huang et al., 2024) . To further their knowledge, Barile and her team sought to dive deeper into the oligosaccharide and peptide composition of these legumes' aquafaba. They initially hypothesized that there would be oligosaccharides and peptides beneficial to human health in the legumes. Using laboratory techniques such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), they identified various health-benefiting oligosaccharides and peptides, supporting their original hypothesis (Huang et al., 2024) . Continuing with her oligosaccharide research, Dr. Barile and her team even created a comprehensive database for oligosaccharides in mammalian milk, totaling to 3193 entries for 783 distinct oligosaccharide structures from 77 different species. Their research created a database titled "MilkOligoDB," organizing data from 113 publications and over five decades of research (Durham et al., 2023) . Their work provides valuable, easy-access data for future oligosaccharide research, where previous oligosaccharide profiles were more difficult to locate.  Current Research Projects Dr. Barile continues to pursue novel research in her field. In a recent interview with Dr. Barile, she emphasized the importance of fiber intake and its connection to a healthy gut microbiome. The gut microbiome is an essential feature of human health that is responsible for many vital functions in the body. Maintaining a good balance of beneficial bacteria is essential. Dr. Barile expresses her concern that in today’s society, many consumers are “starving their gut microbiome.” But how does one feed the gut microbiome? The answer is fiber. Figure 3. Health Benefits of a Healthy Gut Microbiome and Connections to other Bodily Systems (Afzaal et al., 2022) Dietary fiber  is particularly important because it is made of many types of carbohydrates indigestible by the human digestive system. Because they are indigestible, they provide as food sources for commensal or beneficial bacteria in our gut. With more food to eat, the bacteria in our gut have enough resources to stay alive and support our digestive system and bodily processes. However, many modern convenience foods tend to be lower in dietary fiber, making it more difficult to consume enough on a daily basis. As grains are often refined (being stripped of the bran) and fiber is reduced during processing for texture or shelf life (Belluz, 2019) , fiber-rich options may not always be as readily available in typical packaged food choices. Dr. Barile hopes to dive deeper into fiber research and accessibility. One problem that is difficult to solve, she quotes, is that “fiber doesn’t taste great, and so people aren’t eating it.” She believes that alleviating this fiber famine will take a combination of healthy fiber and good-tasting products that consumers will purchase. But before that happens, some foods that are naturally high in fiber already are whole grains, legumes, apples, nuts, and leafy greens (“Fiber,” 2012) . Figure 4. Foods Naturally Rich in Dietary Fiber (“Fiber,” 2012) To add on to potential advancement in fiber research, Dr. Barile also plans to continue research on dairy and plant-based products. More can be found on her lab website . Advice to Young Scientists In a segment of an interview with Dr. Barile, the QuantYum Lab  team inquired ways that students can gain more education on food science and the impact that diet can have on health. She encourages students to take community college classes and request courses to be offered at local schools about nutritional literacy. For young scientists or individuals exploring STEM, Dr. Barile highly recommends gaining lab experience early. In the often convoluted path of finding a niche or area of interest, the best learning opportunities are gaining experience to find what ignites passion and fosters joy in the process. Key Takeaways From whole foods to streams, Dr. Barile’s projects on oligosaccharide research have contributed significantly to increasing the knowledge of food composition and are just tastes of her extensive career in research. What originally started as a goal in pharmaceutics blossomed into a fruitful profession as a professor and researcher at UC-Davis. Her advancements to the field contribute significantly to a broader understanding of how important food is to our daily lives. More than just a scientist, Dr. Barile serves as an inspiration for those interested in STEM and its intersection with food and health. References Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shah, Y. A., Hussain, M., Rabail, R., Socol, C. T., Hassoun, A., Pateiro, M., Lorenzo, J. M., Rusu, A. V., & Aadil, R. M. (2022). Human gut microbiota in health and disease: Unveiling the relationship. Frontiers in Microbiology , 13 .   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.999001 Bambridge-Sutton, A. (2023, October 17). ‘This stuff is so abundant’: The benefits of using side streams in food production . FoodNavigator.Com .   https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2023/10/17/the-benefits-of-using-side-streams-in-food-production/ Belluz, J. (2019, March 20). Nearly all Americans fail to eat enough of this actual superfood . Vox.   https://www.vox.com/2019/3/20/18214505/fiber-diet-weight-loss Câmara, J. S., Albuquerque, B. R., Aguiar, J., Corrêa, R. C. G., Gonçalves, J. L., Granato, D., Pereira, J. A. M., Barros, L., & Ferreira, I. C. F. R. (2021). Food Bioactive Compounds and Emerging Techniques for Their Extraction: Polyphenols as a Case Study. Foods , 10 (1), Article 1.   https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010037 Durham, S. D., Wei, Z., Lemay, D. G., Lange, M. C., & Barile, D. (2023). Creation of a milk oligosaccharide database, MilkOligoDB, reveals common structural motifs and extensive diversity across mammals. Scientific Reports , 13 (1), 10345.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36866-y Fiber. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/carbohydrates/fiber/ Huang, Y.P., Masarweh, C., Paviani, B., Mills, D. A., & Barile, D. (2024). Exploring bioactive compounds in chickpea and bean aquafaba: Insights from glycomics and peptidomics analyses. Food Chemistry , 460 , 140635.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140635 Sinrod, A. J. G., Li, X., Bhattacharya, M., Paviani, B., Wang, S. C., & Barile, D. (2021). A second life for wine grapes: Discovering potentially bioactive oligosaccharides and phenolics in chardonnay marc and its processing fractions. LWT , 144 , 111192.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111192 Teodoro, A. J. (2019). Bioactive Compounds of Food: Their Role in the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity , 2019 , 3765986.   https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3765986 Zern, T. L., & Fernandez, M. L. (2005). Cardioprotective Effects of Dietary Polyphenols1. The Journal of Nutrition , 135 (10), 2291–2294.   https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.10.2291 Oligosaccharides: Foods List, Benefits, and More. (2022, April 4). Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/oligosaccharides Statins. (n.d.). [Text]. Medline Plus; National Library of Medicine. Retrieved July 27, 2025, from   https://medlineplus.gov/statins.html Unveiling the Hidden Health Treasures of Grape Pomace . (2024, March 11). WellVine.   https://wellvine.com/blogs/articles/unveiling-the-hidden-health-treasures-of-grape-pomace What Do Polyphenols Do for You? (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved July 29, 2025, from   https://health.clevelandclinic.org/polyphenols

The TV dinner has been a staple of many American households since the 1950s. Swanson, a food company, turned this idea into a commercial success by applying food science to improve meal design. Through innovations in freezing and reheating methods, they created convenient meals that were accessible and appealing to all kinds of Americans. Origin In late 1953, Swanson had 260 tons of frozen turkey left over from Thanksgiving in refrigerated railroad cars. Gerry Thomas, a salesman at the food company, had the idea to serve the turkey along with other frozen holiday foods such as cornbread stuffing and sweet potatoes in compartmentalized aluminum trays. These trays would be heated in the oven and enjoyed as a convenient meal (Biakolo & Sexton, 2020) . Figure 1. The Swanson turkey TV dinner from the 1960s (Wade, 2015) . According to some accounts, Thomas was inspired by a meal, served in a similar tray, that he consumed on a Pan American Airways flight. The first of these trays had been developed and used by United Airlines beginning in 1937. In the 1940s, other food companies began selling similar products in grocery stores, but they hadn’t achieved the same popularity that Swanson’s meals would soon have (Kiger, 2013) . Cultural Significance The TV dinner arrived at the perfect time. By the mid-1950s, technology was revolutionizing the domestic sphere, making it easier for women to enter the workforce. Appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, and electric irons saved women hours of household labor (Berger, 2019) . Additionally, many women had taken up jobs traditionally held by men during World War II. Though most of these women lost their jobs after the war ended, they had broken a cultural norm that made it easier for them to enter the workforce in the 1950s ("Women in the Work Force", 2016) . With many women no longer at home to cook elaborate meals, the Swanson TV dinner was an easy solution. Families could simply heat their meals and enjoy them together in front of the television, a relatively new and increasingly popular fixture in the home (Allen & Thompson, 2009) . Due to demand, companies even began to sell folding TV tables, which consumers could place the hot aluminum trays on (Kiger, 2013) . Figure 2. The Reagans eating dinner from TV trays (Komar, 2019) . The Science of Frozen Food Swanson’s TV dinners would not have been possible without scientific innovations in freezing and reheating food. Freezing is a process during which the water inside cells crystallizes and immobilizes other molecules, stopping all biological processes and preserving food. However, while freezing meats and vegetables, the growing ice crystals puncture the cell membranes. Due to the damage, the food would be soggy when reheated later. In 1922, naturalist Clarence Birdseye discovered that freezing food would rapidly result in the growth of small ice crystals, which wouldn’t damage the cell membranes. Companies like Swanson later utilized this method of flash freezing to preserve the original textures of foods (Gust, 2011). Figure 3. Clarence Birdseye, the discoverer of the flash freezing method, preparing food for dehydration experiments (Byrne, 2022) . Additionally, different foods have different heat capacities and thermal conductivities, meaning they absorb and transfer heat at different rates. Ineffective reheating could leave some bacteria alive and potentially harm consumers. Swanson’s bacteriologist, Betty Cronin, designed their TV dinners so that each component of the meal could be heated to its optimal taste in the same amount of time. She modified portion sizes, optimized tray layouts, and conducted many tests to develop the best formulas for frozen foods (Randle, 2021) . Key Takeaways The success of the TV dinner was a product of culture and technology. As traditional gender roles in the home evolved, Swanson responded to the growing demand for convenient meals. For many Americans, TV dinners remain a nostalgic reminder of family evenings spent gathered in front of the television. References Allen, S., & Thompson, R. J. (2009). Television in the United States—Late Golden Age, Broadcasting, Programming . Britannica.   https://www.britannica.com/art/television-in-the-United-States/The-late-Golden-Age Berger, M. W. (2019, January 30). How the appliance boom moved more women into the workforce | Penn Today . Penn Today.   https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/how-appliance-boom-moved-more-women-workforce Biakolo, K., & Sexton, C. (2020, November). A Brief History of the TV Dinner . Smithsonian Magazine.   https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/brief-history-tv-dinner-180976039/ Byrne, K. J. (2022, September 30). Meet Clarence Birdseye: American who cooked up frozen foods . New York Post.   https://nypost.com/2022/09/30/meet-clarence-birdseye-american-who-cooked-up-frozen-foods/ Debczak, M. (2023, February 27). How the TV Dinner Revolutionized American Life . Mental Floss.   https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/651796/tv-dinners-food-history Gust, L. (2011). Defrosting dinner: The evolution of frozen meals in America . MIT – Intersect, 4 (1). Kiger, P. J. (2013, February 28). 10 Breakthroughs in TV Dinners . HowStuffWorks.   https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/10-breakthroughs-in-tv-dinners.htm Komar, M. (2019, November 17). A Brief History of the TV Tray Table . Apartment Therapy.   https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/tv-tray-history-background-36664929 Randle, A. (2021, February 24). Who Invented the TV Dinner?  HISTORY.   https://www.history.com/articles/tv-dinner-history-inventor Wade, L. (2015, November 23). Thanksgiving, the first TV dinner—Sociological Images. The Society Pages .   https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2015/11/23/thanksgiving-dinner-by-swanson/ Women in the Work Force during World War II . (2016, August 15). National Archives.   https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/wwii-women.html Thumbnail image: (Wade, 2015)

Artificial flavoring is ubiquitous in most food products on the food market. Originating from the high consumer demand for consistent flavoring that was agriculturally impossible to cultivate from natural ingredients, artificial flavoring has become one of the main sources of what we know as flavor today. Contrary to most beliefs, there are many common misconceptions about artificial flavorings, especially in comparison to natural flavorings. In reality, the barrier separating natural and artificial flavors is much smaller than most assume.  (Gritzer, 2025) Engineering Natural and Artificial Flavoring According to the FDA, artificial flavorings are substances not derived from plants, animals, or fermented products, that alter the flavor in food (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Natural flavorings , on the other hand, are extracted directly from plants, animals, and fermented products (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) . One distinct flavor is composed of many different components. In order to make a comprehensive flavor profile, both natural and artificial flavors must undergo engineering processes. The term “natural” and “artificial” merely differentiate by the raw ingredients used to make them (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . For example, natural lemon flavoring stems from citral , a chemical compound found in lemon peels, lemon myrtle, or even lemongrass. Artificial lemon flavoring is also made of citral, but the citral used originates from chemical isolates of previously inedible material (Huen, 2015) . Vanilla is another example. Vanilla, being one of the most highly demanded flavors, often appears in its artificial flavor form. This is due to a key compound, called vanillin which is present and isolated from byproducts of the paper industry or petroleum ( Lacy, 2024) . Examples like lemon and vanilla show that the difference between the two flavoring styles lies purely in which ingredients were used to make them (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . ("Natural Vs. Artificial", 2021) Myths of Natural vs. Artificial Flavors Myth: Artificial flavors are always harmful. Reality: Many artificial flavors are deemed safe by food safety authorities. Companies are kept in check by intensive inspection from beginning to end of production. Additionally, during storage, meticulous sanitary conditions are maintained to ensure safe results (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Myth: Natural flavors are healthier than artificial ones. Reality: Flavor, in itself, does not contribute any nutritional value to food consumed. With natural and artificial flavorings often having exactly the same chemical structure, consuming one or the other will not provide nutritional benefits or damage (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . To add on, despite many misconceptions that artificial flavorings are full of additives, natural flavors can also contain additives and be equally processed (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) .  Myth: Natural flavors are more sustainable than artificial flavors. Reality: Natural components used to produce natural flavorings require significantly more energy for processing and time than it would take to use artificial materials. In fact, emissions from growing, transporting, and processing natural ingredients significantly exceeds artificial flavoring (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Myth: Natural flavors are not chemically engineered at all, only artificial flavors are. Reality: To make both natural and artificial flavors, molecular flavor engineers, known more formally as flavorists , first compile the combination of compounds found in a specific flavor. From that point forward, they match the chemical compounds responsible for each flavor with each other. Artificial flavoring is often the only accused flavoring source of “engineered flavor;” however, both natural and artificial flavoring undergo extensive engineering and food safety testing (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) . Key Takeaways Besides the initial ingredients used to make them, natural and artificial flavoring share much of the same manufacturing processes. Although there are other factors to consider when approaching different foods, whether a package is naturally or artificially flavored may not give a comprehensive understanding of the product and how it was made. To consider its origin and purpose, artificial flavoring is essentially a tool used to ensure optimal and consistent flavor sustainably, accessibly, cost effectively, and safely. By understanding the chemistry and manufacturing process, consumers can approach various foods with more discretion and knowledge. References Gritzer, D. (2025, May 5). Here’s Why Natural and Artificial Flavors Aren’t What They Seem . Serious Eats.   https://www.seriouseats.com/natural-vs-artificial-flavors-11728636 Huen, E. (n.d.). What Manufacturers Really Mean By Natural And Artificial Flavors . Forbes. Retrieved July 13, 2025, from   https://www.forbes.com/sites/eustaciahuen/2015/10/01/what-manufacturers-really-mean-by-natural-artificial-flavors-according-to-museum-of-food-drink/ Lacy. (2024, September 10). What’s Up With Artificial Flavors? Organic Authority . https://www.organicauthority.com/health/what-are-artificial-flavors Natural and Artificial Flavors . (2021, July 26).   https://nutrisci.wisc.edu/2021/07/26/natural-and-artificial-flavors/ Natural Vs. Artificial Flavors . (2021, April 21). Flavorman.   https://www.flavorman.com/media/natural-and-artificial-flavors-how-are-they-different Tilley Distribution. (2023, May 26). How Are Artificial Flavors Made? Tilley Distribution .   https://www.tilleydistribution.com/insights/creating-artificial-flavors-the-science-of-good-taste/ Thumbnail image: (Gritzer, 2025)

There are five types of tastes. Everyone is familiar with the first four - sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. However, the umami taste has only recently gained spotlight in popular western kitchens. But this rich and savory flavor has been the core of many types of cuisine around the world for centuries. Examples of Umami Foods (Godbole, 2025) . What Is Umami? Umami is a Japanese word that means “pleasant savory taste,” and it was first identified in the early 1900s by chemist Kikunae Ikeda. He found that the amino acid glutamate, which is found in abundance in foods such as seaweed, meat, or tomatoes, creates a deeply satisfying flavor, much different from the other four tastes ( Paul-Gera, 2021 ) . Later research confirmed that human tongues actually have receptors built specifically for glutamate, making umami an officially recognized fifth taste. Another interesting fact is that there are also glutamate receptors in the stomach, which signal to the brain to initiate digestive responses ( "What Is Umami", n.d. ) . Other foods such as parmesan cheese, soy sauce, mushrooms or aged meats trigger a mouthwatering sensation we now know as “umami” ( Yamaguchi & Ninomiya, 2000 ) . Seaweed as an Example of a Food with Rich Umami Flavor (Heffelfinger, 2022) . Why do we need Umami? Umami is an important factor in how we experience flavor and taste. It boosts both satisfaction and fullness while eating, making meals a lot more enjoyable with extra ingredients. For these reasons, chefs often use umami-rich ingredients to create flavor in broth and slow cooked dishes. Outside of restaurants, the food industry has also used umami to reduce sodium while maintaining good taste. Outside of cuisine, researchers have also explored umami’s potential in appetite control, especially among older adults with declining taste buds ( Ninomiya, 2015 ) . A Vegetarian, Umami Dish ( Sevier, 2020 ) Key Takeaways Umami is much more than a cool word being thrown around to describe a new taste. It has been around for as long as humanity existed. Whether it’s grilled meat or tomatoes, umami is everywhere once you know where to look. References Godbole, N. (2025, April 30). What Is Umami? 12 Foods with Umami You’ll Want to Try. Reader’s Digest . https://www.rd.com/list/13-foods-with-natural-umami/ Heffelfinger, J. (2022, November 17). How to Use Dried Seaweed Sheets . Food & Wine. https://www.foodandwine.com/news/nori-cooking-tips Ninomiya, K. (2015). Science of umami taste: Adaptation to gastronomic culture. Flavour , 4 (1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2044-7248-4-13 Paul-Gera, K. (2021, July 30). Umami: The fifth taste . Mosa Meat. https://mosameat.com/blog/what-is-umami Sevier, J. (2020, January 21). Umami-Boosting Secrets From 5 Great Vegetarian Cooks . Epicurious. https://www.epicurious.com/expert-advice/umami-boosting-ingredients-vegetarian-cooking-ideas-article What is Umami . (n.d.). Umami Information Center. Retrieved July 14, 2025, from https://www.umamiinfo.com/ Yamaguchi, S., & Ninomiya, K. (2000). Umami and food palatability. The Journal of Nutrition , 130 (4S Suppl), 921S-6S.   https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.4.921 Thumbnail image: ( Sevier, 2020 ).