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On a recent viewing of the show Hot Ones , where celebrities eat wings that get progressively spicier while being interviewed. As the wings continue to get spicier and the Scoville level passes 40,000, I can feel my own throat and skin radiating with heat as I continue watching them even though I’m not the one eating the wings. More so, I sympathize with the urge for celebrities to grab a bottle of milk to drown out the heat. That urge was the moment I grew interested in why milk relieves the spicy sensation. Why is milk so effective at removing the pain, and what other foods are able to do the same? Chemical Properties of Milk To first understand why milk is so powerful at calming down the pain from spice, it is important to discuss its composition. Milk, especially whole milk, contains fats and a protein called casein , which constitutes about 80% of the total protein in the drink (“Casein” 2026) . Additionally casein is an amphiphilic substance that contains both hydrophilic (water-loving and polar) and hydrophobic (water-fearing and nonpolar) ends (Griffiths, 2015) . How Milk Reduces Spicy Sensations The reason why milk is so good at removing the spicy taste from our mouths is because the hydrophobic ends of casein and the nonpolar fats can attract and dissolve the capsaicin molecules, or the primary active compounds in chili peppers that give them their spicy sensation (Acapulcos, 2012) , which are also nonpolar and hydrophobic (Griffiths, 2015) . You can think of casein and fats as soap that washes the pain receptors and cleans the mouth from the capsaicin. This is also the reason why skim milk, fat free milks, or plant-based milks do not relieve the spice as much as whole milk, which has an abundance of casein and fat molecules ( Why Does Milk Help with Spice? , n.d.) . Figure 1. Casein molecules pulling capsaicin molecules from the pain receptors in the mouth, ameliorating the spicy sensation ( Chillies: Hot but Very Cool , n.d.) . How Other Substances Influence Spice Perception There are several other substances that can help relieve the pain in ways similar and distinct from milk. Because of milk’s effectiveness, it is no surprise that other dairy products high in fat and casein like yogurt, ice cream, and sour cream also reduce spiciness. Sugary, non-fizzy drinks, while not as effective as dairy products, can help reduce the spice through a phenomenon called mixture suppression. Mixture suppression is a product of the sugary sensation overpowering or dampening the pain of the spice ( What Makes Spice Go Away , 2026) , making sugary drinks like Kool-aid effective in reducing spice. You can think of sugar acting like a distractor to the pain. On the opposite end, other substances actually exacerbate the pain from spiciness. One example is water. Because water is a polar solvent and lacks the casein and fat composition as milk, it cannot remove capsaicin from the pain receptors in the mouth. Rather its immiscibility , or inability to mix with non-polar capsaicin, actually spreads capsaicin around the mouth, leading to an even more irritable sensation (Dand, 2023) . Even worse than water is sparkling or carbonated water. In the previous paragraph, it was emphasized that sugary, non-fizzy  drinks would help relieve pain because fizziness can cancel out the pain relief from the sugar. Fizzy drinks, specifically sparkling water, also spreads capsaicin throughout the mouth, but it is strengthened by the carbonation. The carbonation can also irritate inflamed tissues in the mouth, causing the pain to increase dramatically ( ScienceShot , n.d.) . Figure 2. Spectrum of drinks that are the best through worst at mitigating the milk sensation  (Boyd, 2019) . Key Takeaways It is so interesting to see the effects of how different fluids create polar differences in how prominent the spicy sensation is in the mouth. Additionally, it's also fascinating to see how chemical properties completely rewire the effectiveness of a drink. Now, when I turn on Hot Ones  and I imagine eating the wings with the celebrities, I can thank the host for recommending milk instead of water. And, most importantly, I can thank my genetics that I’m not lactose intolerant! References Acapulcos. (2012, December 11). Capsaicin – Why Do Hot Peppers Burn? Acapulcos .   https://acapulcos.net/capsaicin-why-do-hot-peppers-burn/ Boyd, C. (2019, June 26). Why you should drink MILK after eating extra spicy foods . Mail Online.   https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-7182749/Why-drink-MILK-eating-extra-spicy-foods.html Casein | Definition, Properties, Manufacture, & Uses . (2026, April 6).   https://www.britannica.com/science/casein Chillies: Hot but very Cool . (n.d.). Inevitable Science. Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://www.google.com/url?q=https://inevitablescience.wixsite.com/inevsci/post/chillies-hot-but-very-cool&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1776607963870015&usg=AOvVaw0pBxEaxthGzyeShFGskt4c Dand, K. (2023, August 11). Why Water Sucks At Cooling Spicy Sensations . Food Republic.   https://www.foodrepublic.com/1358883/why-water-cant-cool-spicy-sensation/ Griffiths, S. (2015, December 2). Why you should NEVER drink water after spicy food . Mail Online.   https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3342526/So-S-chilli-peppers-tingle-tongue-Capsaicin-compound-binds-pain-receptors-milk-really-does-help.html ScienceShot: Soda’s Spicy Secret . (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceshot-sodas-spicy-secret What Makes Spice Go Away: Milk, Sugar, and More . (2026, March 12). ScienceInsights.   https://scienceinsights.org/what-makes-spice-go-away-milk-sugar-and-more/ Why Does Milk Help with Spice? Spicy Food Needs Milk . (n.d.). The Dairy Alliance. Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://thedairyalliance.com/blog/why-your-spicy-food-needs-milk Thumbnail image: photo Aliona Gumeniuk

Excess sodium intake is a major worldwide problem. When sodium enters the bloodstream, to maintain the chemical balance, the body retains more water. This increase in fluids in the bloodstream gradually elevates the blood pressure, which can lead to hypertension over time. This stress on the cardiovascular system greatly increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and many other health concerns; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that increased sodium intake leads to 1.89 million annual deaths ( Sodium , 2025) . These health risks are becoming a major concern and are exacerbated to widespread shifts in the modern diet. Processed, packaged, and restaurant foods are all guilty of increasing salt intake to maintain flavor. How can we decrease sodium intake without compromising flavor and richness in our meals?  Figure 1. An image of the Kirin Electric Salt Spoon (Andronico, 2025) . The Product  In May 2024, the large Japanese corporation Kirin launched commercial Electric Salt Spoons in Japan. Kirin later showcased it at the 2025 Consumer Electronics Show where it won two CES Innovation Awards. This spoon, slightly larger than a normal utensil, uses an electric current on the tongue to enhance the saltiness of any meal. This electric and taste interface has been studied since 2011, when the first paper was published by Meiji University of Japan. Kirin partnered with the university's lab in 2019 to help develop and refine this technology, creating taste-enhancing straws, forks, and chopsticks along the way, leading to the now more accessible $127 spoon ( Salty Spoon , 2024) . How It Works   The brain perceives saltiness through special taste receptors — one key type being the Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC) (Jachimowicz-Rogowska & Winiarska-Mieczan, 2023) . When sodium reaches it, it depolarizes the receptor cell, triggering action potentials and neurotransmitter release that send signals to the brain. The Kirin Electric Salt Spoon creates an electric field, concentrating the sodium ions at the ENaC receptors (Coxworth, 2025) . Due to the electric field, consumers are able to increase perceived salt taste without increasing their salt intake. Therefore, eating foods with low sodium content that are recommended for patients is made more enjoyable. Figure 2. How the ENaC receptors work to sense sodium (Jachimowicz-Rogowska & Winiarska-Mieczan, 2023) . Key Takeaways  This Electric Salt Spoon is a new step forward in food technology. Although this spoon is effective, it is not perfect with many reviews mentioning a noticeable difference in taste compared to normal salt describing it as more “full” but not natural (Leamey, 2025) . There is still room to improve, but the industry of taste-enhancing products is very open, and it is certain that we will see many new innovations and improvements in the future. References Andronico, M. (2025, January 6). This wild electric salt spoon wants to make healthy soups taste better . CNN Underscored.   https://www.cnn.com/cnn-underscored/electronics/kirin-electric-salt-spoon-ces-2025 Coxworth, B. (2025, January 10). Electric spoon adds salty taste – but no actual salt – to low-sodium foods . New Atlas.   https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/kirin-electric-salt-spoon/ Jachimowicz-Rogowska, K., & Winiarska-Mieczan, A. (2023). Initiatives to Reduce the Content of Sodium in Food Products and Meals and Improve the Population’s Health. Nutrients , 15 , 2393.   https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15102393 Leamey, T. (2025, January 9). We Tested an Electric Salt Spoon That Might Help You Stick to Your Low-Sodium Diet . CNET.   https://www.cnet.com/home/kitchen-and-household/we-tested-an-electric-salt-spoon-that-might-help-you-stick-to-your-low-sodium-diet/ Reitman, M. (n.d.). New Study Finds Sixth Taste Bud on Tongue. InsideHook . Retrieved March 26, 2026, from   https://www.insidehook.com/culture/new-study-the-tongue-has-sixth-sense-of-taste-for-water Salty spoon to help limit sodium intake without losing taste . (2024, July 3). Food Technology & Manufacturing.   https://www.foodprocessing.com.au/content/food-design-research/news/salty-spoon-to-help-limit-sodium-intake-without-losing-taste-1339350599 Sodium reduction . (2025, February 7). World Health Organization.   https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sodium-reduction Thumbnail image: (Reitman, n.d.)

Hungry after a long day, you reach for that takeout container of fried rice from where it’s been sitting on your counter for the last four days. But a few hours later, you’re in trouble—at least, your stomach is. The culprit behind your food poisoning is a bacterium called Bacillus cereus  (or B. cereus ) , which was hidden in the grains of rice you’d eagerly consumed. Rice left out at room temperature, like the container you just ate, can become unsafe to eat due to bacterial growth and toxin production. THE CULPRIT B. cereus  is found in soil, dust, and water. From these sources, it can contaminate food, where it may grow and produce toxins. While cooking kills most bacteria, B. cereus  can withstand high temperatures, so its dormant spores may survive cooking and remain in cooked rice. If the rice is left at room temperature, these spores can become active, and the bacterium can multiply rapidly. B. cereus  is also found on other starches like pasta and potatoes, but this kind of food poisoning is more common through eating rice because people often keep it in a rice cooker, where the bacterium can grow easily (Cleveland Clinic, 2026) . Figure 1. Microscopic image of B. cereus (Ecolab, 2016) . SYMPTOMS The growth of B. cereus  produces toxins that induce food poisoning. Different types of toxins result in different symptoms. Complex enterotoxins , which are produced when B. cereus  reproduces in the small intestine after consumption, cause diarrhea, while toxins from B. cereus  growth in the rice cause vomiting (Granum & Lund, 1997) . Symptoms, which generally appear within 6 to 12 hours, may also include cramps and fever. Fortunately, B. cereus  rarely causes life-threatening infections; out of the 63,000 cases of food poisoning it caused in the United States in 2023, only 20 resulted in hospitalizations (Whelan, 2024) . Figure 2. Rice stored safely in the refrigerator (Vu, 2022) . PREVENTION To stay safe, rice should be refrigerated within one to two hours. Avoid refrigerating rice in large chunks, as it may take a while for the center to cool, allowing bacteria to grow. It is recommended to cook rice in small batches to reduce the risk of leftover rice in the rice cooker. Because the toxins caused by B. cereus  are heat-resistant, reheating rice later does not guarantee it is safe to eat. If rice has been left out for a few hours, it should be thrown out (Olsson, 2025) . KEY TAKEAWAYS Leftover rice may seem harmless, but it can pose real health risks if not handled properly. Toxins from the reproduction of B. cereus may result in vomiting and diarrhea. To summarize: when in doubt, throw it out. REFERENCES Bacillus cereus . (n.d.). The Global Leader in Water, Hygiene and Infection Prevention  | Ecolab. Retrieved April 10, 2026, from   https://www.ecolab.com/expertise-and-innovation/resources/microbial-risks/b-cereus Granum, P. E., & Lund, T. (1997). Bacillus cereus  and its food poisoning toxins. FEMS Microbiology Letters , 157 (2), 223–228.   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1097(97)00438-2 Olsson, R. (2025, December 21). Can You Get Food Poisoning From Leftover Rice | Banner Health . Banner Health.   https://www.bannerhealth.com/healthcareblog/teach-me/can-you-get-food-poisoning-from-leftover-rice Vu, H. (2022, March 29). How Long Does Cooked Rice Last in the Fridge? Hungry Huy .   https://www.hungryhuy.com/how-long-does-cooked-rice-last/ What Is Bacillus cereus Food Poisoning?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved April 10, 2026, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23581-bacillus-cereus Whelan, L. (2024, March 6). How Reheated Rice Can Make You Sick . Right as Rain.   https://rightasrain.uwmedicine.org/body/food/leftover-rice-bacillus-cereus-food-poisoning

Cilantro, the green leaves and stems of the Coriandrum sativum  plant, is one of the most interesting and divisive ingredients in the culinary world. While some people enjoy its fresh, citrusy flavor, others find it unpleasant with an unmistakable soapy smell. This is not just a matter of preference; according to published data, betwee n 3% and 21% of the   population  is genetically predisposed to perceive  cilantro as soapy (Clinic, 2025) . Figure 1. A bowl of cilantro ready to be cut (“Is There a ‘Cilantro Soap Gene’?”, 2025) How the Human Nose Detects Odors The human nose detects odors when airborne molecules enter the nasal cavity, where odorants , or volatile compounds that stimulate olfactory sensations, dissolve in mucus and bind to specialized olfactory receptor s, encoded by a large family of Olfactory Receptor (OR) genes . Specific odorants fit into corresponding receptors like a lock and a key. S timulation of ORs converts the chemical information encoded in odorants into corresponding neuronal action potentials that depolarize olfactory sensory neurons, thereby sending signals to different parts of the brain for processing (Sharma et al., 2018) . Figure 2. A schematic illustrating the functions of odor receptors, which are encoded by odor receptor genes (Moon, 2020) . The Chemistry Behind Cilantro’s Flavor Cilantro owes its polarizing odor primarily to volatile organic compounds (VOCs)  naturally present in the plant, with aldehydes making up the dominant class. Key compounds identified in cilantro include (E)-2-decenal, decanal, (E)-2-dodecenal, and (E)-2-tetradecenal (Kumar et al., 2022) . Notably, these same aldehydes are also commonly found in detergents and soaps. While these odorant molecules define the plant’s distinctive aroma, the perception of their odor, whether they smell “fresh” or “soap-like,” depends heavily on the consumer’s genetic makeup. The Role of the OR6A2 Gene in Cilantro Sensitivity To be more specific, sensitivity to these aldehydes has been traced to a mutation in OR6A2, an olfactory receptor gene located on chromosome 11 (Callaway, 2012) . In a genome-wide association study (GWAS)  of 14,604 participants of European ancestry who reported whether cilantro tasted soapy, researchers identified a significant correlation between the perceived “soapy” flavor of cilantro and a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) , which refers to the genetic variation that represents a difference in a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome. This SNP (rs7291001) occurs within the OR6A2 gene , which exhibits  high binding specificity   for several aldehydes , including those present in cilantro. As a result, individuals with this genetic variant are “biologically programmed” to detect the cilantro’s odor as soapy and detergent-like. Nonetheless, it is important to note that this SNP only has a low heritability rate of 0.087, suggesting there may be other factors contributing to this sensory puzzle (Eriksson et al., 2012) . Figure 3. A visual map detailing the moment the aldehyde is bound to the odorant receptors until it is perceived by the brain. (Smart, 2023) . Key Takeaways Cilantro’s reputation as a herb with a polarizing smell is a perfect example of how genetics, chemistry, and sensory biology collide to shape our unique experience of the world. Studies have revealed that the soap-like odor of this plant is actually linked to an SNP in the OR6A2 olfactory receptor gene, which increases individuals’ sensitivity to certain aldehydes present in the plant. However, given the low heritability rate of this mutation, other factors may also be affecting individuals’ preferences for cilantro. Sources: References Callaway, E. (2012). Soapy taste of coriander linked to genetic variants. Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.11398 Clinic, C. (2025, August 25). Can a gene cause cilantro to taste like soap?  Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/do-you-love-or-hate-cilantro-the-reason-may-surprise-you Eriksson, N., Wu, S., Do, C. B., Kiefer, A. K., Tung, J. Y., Mountain, J. L., Hinds, D. A., & Francke, U. (2012). A genetic variant near olfactory receptor genes influences cilantro preference. arXiv (Cornell University) . https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1209.2096 Is There a ‘Cilantro Soap Gene’? (2025, August 25). Cleveland Clinic.   https://health.clevelandclinic.org/do-you-love-or-hate-cilantro-the-reason-may-surprise-you Kumar, S., Ahmad, R., Saeed, S., Azeem, M., Mozūraitis, R., Borg-Karlson, A., & Zhu, G. (2022). Chemical composition of fresh leaves headspace aroma and essential oils of four coriander cultivars. Frontiers in Plant Science , 13 , 820644. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.820644 Moon, D. (2020, October 16). Odor Receptor Genes: Smelling things differently. Genetic Lifehacks .   https://www.geneticlifehacks.com/intriguing-genes-differences-in-how-we-smell-things/ Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Aier, I., Semwal, R., Tyagi, P., & Varadwaj, P. (2018). Sense of Smell: Structural, functional, mechanistic advancements and challenges in human olfactory research. Current Neuropharmacology , 17 (9), 891–911. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626 Smart, K. (2023, November 8). a Morsel of Science: Why Some People Find Cilantro Soapy | by a Morsel of Science | Medium . Medium.   https://medium.com/@a.morsel.of.science/a-morsel-of-science-why-do-some-people-find-cilantro-soapy-ab726801c212 Thumbnail image: Peaky Frames

As intimidating as it sounds, microencapsulation may seem like some crazy aeronautic operation in sci-fi movies, but it is actually an innovative tool used in the food industry. When designing food products for their flavor, nutritional value, and shelf-life, it is important to consider how the chemical composition of a product influences is success in distribution, especially when its ingredients may be susceptible to degradation from the surrounding environment. To prevent reducing the quality of food products, a flavorists and food scientists rely on a technique called microencapsulation that continues to alter the food industry today. What is Microencapsulation? Encapsulation is the general mechanism used to protect active compounds such as flavorings, prebiotics, vitamins, pigments, and antimicrobials from environmental factors like heat, light, or moisture that may degrade these compounds (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . In the same manner microencapsulation is a type of encapsulation at the microscopic level. Figure 1. Example of an active ingredient or compound encapsulated in a microcapsule (“Microencapsulation for Food,” n.d.) . History of Microencapsulation Microencapsulation was first discovered in the late 1930s by American chemist Barry Green who worked for the National Cash Register (NCR). With original intentions completely unrelated to food, he aimed to create a neater alternative to carbon copying paper. He used his knowledge of colloid chemistry and phase coacervation (Watters, 2000)  (aka liquid-liquid phase separation of LLPS), which is a process where a homogenous solution separates into two non-mixable liquids (Kim et al., 2025) , to create extremely tiny capsules wrapped in gelatin. These capsules, placed on the back of the top document, release dye onto a paper copy after a pen writes on the original document (Lednicer, 2010) .  Even, after decades, there are many uses for Green's copy paper. For example, many students have used Green's creation of carbonless copy paper when taking exams. Figure 2. Structure of carbonless copy paper. Note the microcapsulated layer in between the top and middle layers ( “Everything,” 2019) . Later it was discovered that Green’s discovery could be applied to the food production. Because these capsules had shown to provide a reliable container to store dye, they were later repurposed to seal and protect active compounds in food products from the surrounding environment. Additionally, microcapsules allowed for flavorists to control the optimized flavor profiles of different foods, making them widely versatile in culinary and processing industries (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . It is fascinating how microencapsulation’s application in food science originally had no relation to it! Application in the Culinary World Chefs can even use encapsulating techniques in their cooking. A common example is seen in competitive cooking shows such as MasterChef where contestants present appealing dishes to the judges. In a technique called spherification , the contestant drops mixes a liquid with sodium alginate (see Kelp Article) and drops small amounts into a bath of calcium chloride, which forms a thin gel membrane. The membrane formation allows for the contestants to diversify their plating while maintaining the flavor and consistency of the liquid for the judges to taste (Sherri, 2012) .  Figure 3. A MasterChef dish featuring spherification. Watch this video to see the spherification process in action (MasterChef World, 2021) . Recent Advancements Microencapsulation continues to advance the food industry and public health today. Recent developments in microencapsulation include incorporation of polyphenolic extracts , or secondary metabolites of plants with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Brglez Mojzer et al., 2016) , bacteriocins , or proteins and peptides that inhibit bacterial growth (“Bacteriocins”, n.d.) , and natural antimicrobials. Microencapsulating these compounds have shown to inhibit microbial growth in food, rendering microencapsulating particularly useful for food preservation long-term (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . Key Takeaways From carbonless copy paper to MasterChef, microcapsules' applications are versatile. For the food industry specifically, ensuring the proper chemical composition of food products optimizes quality, improves public health, and enhances flavor profiles. In the near future, microcapsules provide promising solutions for increasing food preservation and reducing spoilage from microbial growth. Microencapsulation serves as a prime example that food science necessitates multiple disciplines to generate scalable change. Moving forward, it is essential to consider different perspectives and to collaborate consistently to improve emerging issues within food science, processing, and distribution. References Bacteriocins—An overview . (n.d.). ScienceDirect. Retrieved March 21, 2026, from   https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/bacteriocins Brglez Mojzer, E., Knez Hrnčič, M., Škerget, M., Knez, Ž., & Bren, U. (2016). Polyphenols: Extraction Methods, Antioxidative Action, Bioavailability and Anticarcinogenic Effects. Molecules , 21 (7), 901.   https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21070901 Calderón-Oliver, M., & Ponce-Alquicira, E. (2022). The Role of Microencapsulation in Food Application. Molecules , 27 (5), 1499.   https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051499 Everything You Need to Know about Carbonless Copy Paper. (2019, June 20). L.G. Business Systems .   https://lgbusinesssystems.com.au/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-carbonless-copy-paper/ Kim, D. H., Ki, M.-R., Chung, D. Y., & Pack, S. P. (2025). Biomolecule-Based Coacervation: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives in Biomedical and Biotechnological Fields. Biomolecules , 15 (6), 861.   https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15060861 Lednicer, D. (2010). Microencapsulation. American Heritage’s Invention & Technology , 25 (3).   https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/microencapsulation MasterChef World. (2021, May 1). Molecular Gastronomy Masterclass! | MasterChef New Zealand | MasterChef World  [Video recording].   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28_ih0SrVYs Microencapsulation for Food. (n.d.). Balchem . Retrieved March 21, 2026, from   https://balchem.com/hnh/science-tech/technologies/microencapsulation/ Olufemi, B. (2025, June 11). DIY Molecular Gastronomy: Turning Liquids into Edible Spheres. Quill of Grubs .   https://quillofgrubs.com/diy-molecular-gastronomy-turning-liquids-into-edible-spheres/ Sherri. (2012, May 9). Molecular Gastronomy—Spherification and Caviar Ingredients and Equipment Online . HubPages.   https://discover.hubpages.com/food/Molecular-Gastronomy-Spherification-Ingredients-Equipment-Online Watters, J. L. (2000). Microencapsulation – How it All Began . Gordon College.   https://www.cs.gordon.edu/courses/organic/dol/Microencapsulation/ Thumbnail Image: (Olufemi, 2025)

Known as the ‘second brain’, the gut plays many roles in the body from controlling functions like swallowing to impacting mood. A huge part of it is the gut microbiome. Thought of as a virtual organ because of its importance, the gut microbiome is a complex system of over a 100 trillion living microorganisms. These microscopic organisms can reflect not just the stomach’s health, but the health of the entire body ( Feed Your Gut , 2021) . Figure 1. A diagram of the various physiological functions the gut microbiome contributes to (Afzaal et al., n.d.) . How your gut works Every person has a unique gut microbiome populated with species of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. This unique makeup is introduced during birth and infancy, then later develops and evolves as one’s diet changes over time. Most of the organisms in the gut have a symbiotic relationship with the body: the body provides shelter and food, while they complete services that the body can’t on its own. For example, the good bugs help break down certain complex carbohydrates and dietary fibers as well as various vitamins including B1, B9, B12, and K. Beneficial microorganisms also keep harmful bugs in check, produce neurotransmitters like serotonin which regulate mood, and support immune system health ( What Is Your Gut Microbiome? , n.d.) . A balance of these various  microbes is key for overall health—something that can be greatly improved through a  balanced diet.  Figure 2. Foods high in fiber that gut microbes can use to support gut function (Younkin, 2025) . Importance of a balanced diet Diet determines the exact makeup of the gut microbiome. Like all living organisms, the  microbes in the gut thrive in certain conditions. The natural acidity of the gut is the right  balance: it isn’t so acidic that all the good microorganisms die off, but it is acidic enough to kill off most bad microorganisms. Any unhealthy diet, especially the Western diet high in processed foods, red meat, and fat, can push the gut away from ideal conditions. Specific foods can also help introduce the right bacteria to the gut. Probiotics, for example, are one of the many ‘good bugs’ that improve digestion and kill off harmful bacteria. They are found in all fermented foods including yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi (Oliveira, 2025) . Just eating some of these ‘gut friendly’ foods occasionally won’t help—these must be consistently integrated into a person’s diet.  Key Takeaways It is important to keep the gut microbiome healthy as it influences almost every system in the body. The best way to support a healthy gut is by paying attention to the foods you eat and aiming for balance and variety in your diet. By including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and  fermented foods, you create the best environment for the good microbes to thrive. Taking care of your gut isn’t just about digestion, but it's a key part of long-term health, increased immunity, and even a better mood.  References Feed your gut . (2021, April 1). Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/feed-your-gut Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shah, Y. A., Hussain, M., Rabail, R., Socol, C. T., Hassoun, A., Pateiro, M., Lorenzo, J. M., Rusu, A. V., & Aadil, R. M. (n.d.). Frontiers | Human gut microbiota in health and disease: Unveiling the relationship . Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.999001/full What Is Your Gut Microbiome?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/25201-gut-microbiome Oliveira, N. (2025, March 4). Probiotics for Gut Health. The Nutrition Source .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/probiotics/ Younkin, L. (2025, March 21). Best Foods to Eat for Gut Health . EatingWell.   https://www.eatingwell.com/article/2059033/best-and-worst-foods-to-eat-for-gut-health/ Thumbnail Image: (Younkin, 2025)

What is Kelp? Kelp is a type of large, brown seaweed that grows in abundance in cool, coastal waters. Although kelp undergoes photosynthesis to produce energy, it is not to be mistaken for a plant. Instead, it is considered a marine algae. As an algae, kelp provides habitat, food, and shelter to countless biodiverse ecosystems in the oceanic biosphere. Environmentally, they play a crucial role in carbon sequestration,  which is the process of capturing atmospheric carbon and storing it naturally, which significantly reduces the effects of climate change. Structurally, they provide support to coastlines, protect nearby land from erosion, and improve water quality (Hall, 2024) . Figure 1. Digit kelp growing in ocean waters of Nova Scotia ( New National Blueprint , 2025) . Luckily, kelp grows incredibly fast, some species growing about 1.5-2 feet per day (“Giant Kelp”, 2018) . This fast growth rate comes in handy for reducing ocean acidification , which occurs when too much carbon dioxide is dissolved in sea water. Since faster growth can sequester more carbon dioxide, which can acidify the water, kelp is often a tool used to restore pH levels to a more typical range. Kelp also has a unique ability to absorb excess nitrogen and phosphorus, which can prevent rapid population growth of other algae, more formally known as algal blooms (Brisbin, 2023) . Figure 2. Example of what algal blooms look like (Geist, 2018) . Kelp’s Production of Alginate and its Applications Beyond the ocean, kelp also has various applications in multiple industries. Within the cell walls of algae lies a carbohydrate called alginate , which can be found in countless products ranging from ice cream, toothpaste, paper, lotion, and much more. Alginate has a useful property where it can form a gel-like structure without temperature changes, unlike agar and gelatin, making it increasingly more sought out in manufacturing (Abka-khajouei et al., 2022) . Due to its chemical structure, it is also considered a thickening, stabilizing, and emulsifying agent, rendering it particularly useful for culinary (i.e. ice cream and salad dressing), pharmaceutical, and cosmetic goods (i.e. face masks, shampoo, and conditioner). Furthermore, alginate is also bio-compatible, meaning its biodegradability and nontoxicity make it a great option for medical applications like wound healing and drug encapsulation (Gheorghita Puscaselu et al., 2020) . Other benefits to using alginate in manufacturing is its cost-effectiveness and renewability as a resource since kelp is relatively abundant. Figure 3. Dental impressions are an example of a product that is commonly made using alginate, giving it its thick texture (Weichenthal, 2023) . Kelp as an Emerging as a Ne w Cro p Its benefits can be seen both nutritionally and agriculturally. Kelp is considered a superfood, containing nutrients such as iodine, vitamins A, K, and B12, calcium, iron, magnesium, and antioxidants, with proven benefits to thyroid function, immune health, and digestive wellness ( Home , n.d.) .  To cultivate plants, kelp meal can also be used as fertilizer or to quicken composting processes. Kelp serves as a biostimulant , meaning it naturally speeds up nutrient absorption and tolerance to abiotic stress; this quality grants it the ability to fertilize crops or stimulate microbial activity during composting (Hageman, 2025) . Given all of these benefits, it is no wonder that kelp is emerging as a new crop. Figure 4. The organization GreenWave, harvests Kelp to be manufactured into fertilizer for crops ( Seaweed-Powered Agriculture , n.d.) . Kelp is not just useful in its components, but in its entirety as well, and its value as a crop is currently growing rapidly. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, seaweed farming is one of the fastest growing sectors in aquaculture, with a current value of 6 billion dollars ( Kelp Farming , 2025) . In Alaska specifically, kelp is inventing an entire new industry of farming (Stopha, n.d.) . Kelp has also made leaps in aquaculture, and is a leading example in regenerative farming. To restore ecosystems, farmers have been using kelp to stabilize populations of oysters, clams, and mussels. This 3D ocean farming model, as it is called by its founding organization GreenWave, creates a commensal environment where kelp assist shellfish growth through carbon sequestration and reducing algal booms while shellfish filtering out pollutants, improving water quality for the kelp to grow in (Inletkeeper, 2020) . Environmental Factors to Consider in the Kelp Industry Kelp is gaining popularity, and with more people knowledgeable about its rapidly growing market, it is important to consider the drawbacks of harvesting large amounts of kelp, specifically its environmental impact. Harvesting kelp has plenty of benefits which have led to new era ocean regenerative agriculture, utilizing its abundance to manufacture products, and using its unique properties to fertilize crops. However, harvesting should still be done moderately and cautiously. Industrial harvesting , or harvesting kelp in large quantities, can disrupt marine habitats, encourage land erosion, and reduce overall biodiversity within ecosystems. And, since kelp is primary producer, an essential resource for many living organisms within an oceanic region, reducing kelp can deplete sea otter, fish, and octopus populations (Araujo et al., 2013) . While gaining awareness of how the kelp industry can benefit the environment and contribute to widespread nutrition, it is important to consider the drawbacks of overharvesting, a reminder that even renewable resources should never be exploited. Key Takeaways Learning about the kelp industry, the products it's responsible for, and environmental benefits is crucial to realizing its impact in the food science and production world. If kelp is just one example of how we can use natural resources sustainably and innovatively for numerous economic, agricultural, and ecological applications, what other opportunities are there? Being conscious of both the benefits and drawbacks is necessary when considering future plans for harvesting kelp, and the same goes for any industry using natural resources. Kelp demonstrates that it's not primarily about what resources we have, but how we use them responsibly, setting the tone for a brighter, more sustainable world. References Abka-khajouei, R., Tounsi, L., Shahabi, N., Patel, A. K., Abdelkafi, S., & Michaud, P. (2022). Structures, Properties and Applications of Alginates. Marine Drugs , 20 (6), 364.   https://doi.org/10.3390/md20060364 Araujo, R. M., Bartsch, I., Bekkby, T., Erzini, K., & Sousa-Pinto, I. (2013). What is the impact of kelp forest density and/or area on fisheries? Environmental Evidence , 2 (1), 15.   https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-15 Brisbin, M. (2023, September 7). How Fast Does Kelp Grow?  How Fast Does Kelp Grow?   https://www.veritree.com/post/how-fast-does-kelp-grow Geist, M. E. (2018, May 23). A Growing Epidemic of Toxic Algal Blooms—Great Lakes Now . Great Lakes Now.   https://www.greatlakesnow.org/2018/05/23/a-growing-epidemic-of-toxic-algal-blooms/ Gheorghita Puscaselu, R., Lobiuc, A., Dimian, M., & Covasa, M. (2020). Alginate: From Food Industry to Biomedical Applications and Management of Metabolic Disorders. Polymers , 12 (10), 2417.   https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102417 Giant kelp switches diet when key nutrient becomes scarce. (2018, June 7). [U.S. National Science Foundation].   https://www.nsf.gov/news/giant-kelp-switches-diet-when-key-nutrient-becomes Hageman, B. (2025, October 9). Kelp Meal Fertilizer: A Boost for Healthy Plant Growth . Grow Organic.   https://www.groworganic.com/blogs/articles/kelp-meal-a-sustainable-and-nutritious-way-to-fertilize-your-garden Hall, D. (2024, July). Kelp and Kelp Forests | Smithsonian Ocean . Kelp and Kelp Forests.   https://ocean.si.edu/kelp-and-kelp-forests Home . (n.d.). Atlantic Sea Farms. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://atlanticseafarms.com/ Inletkeeper, C. (2020, December 8). GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services - Inletkeeper. GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services .   https://inletkeeper.org/regenerative-ocean-farming/ Kelp Farming: Ocean Restoration That Pays Coastal Towns . (2025, October 11). Science Array.   https://environment.sciencearray.com/kelp-forests-ocean-restoration-coastal-economy Seaweed-Powered Agriculture: Biostimulants Bridge Land and Sea . (n.d.). GreenWave. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/agrisea-biostimulant Stopha, M. (n.d.). Alaska Kelp Farming, Alaska Department of Fish and Game . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=949 Weichenthal, C. (2023, January 25). What is alginate? | maxill . Maxill Dental.   https://www.maxill.com/us/blog/post/what-is-alginate-and-how-is-it-used Thumbnail image: ( New National Blueprint , 2025)

Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is indigestible. Unlike other carbohydrates, which are broken down into glucose, fiber passes through the body mostly intact (The Nutrition Source, 2022) . But if we can’t break down fiber, then what does it do? Furthermore, if our own digestive system cannot metabolize fiber, then what does? Types of Fiber There are two different types of fiber, each with its own purpose in the body. Soluble fiber dissolves in water and becomes a gel, slowing digestion. Foods such as oatmeal, chia seeds, nuts, and lentils are rich in soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, moves food throughout the digestive system. It adds bulk to the stool, which causes stool to pass more quickly and helps prevent constipation. Insoluble fiber is found in foods such as wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains (“Soluable”, 2024) . Figure 1. Various foods that are rich in fiber (“Fiber Rich”, 2023) . How Fiber Interacts with the Body In the stomach, soluble fiber absorbs water and swells, creating a feeling of fullness. As it moves through the small intestine, fiber binds to cholesterol particles, preventing their absorption and naturally lowering blood cholesterol levels. In the large intestine, fiber becomes food for beneficial gut bacteria ( UCLA Health, 2025) . These microorganisms ferment certain types of fiber, producing short-chain fatty acids. This fermentation process also supports a healthy gut microbiome, which is important for digestive and immune function (Mann et al., 2024) . Other Health Benefits Beyond improving digestive processes, fiber can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Insoluble fiber helps lower glucose levels and blood cholesterol, which are significant risk factors for cardiovascular disease. By promoting satiety and reducing food intake, fiber also aids in weight control, helping to lower the risk of heart disease associated with being overweight (Lewine, 2024) . Fiber also reduces the risk of colorectal cancer. Short-chain fatty acids, produced through the fermentation of fiber, sustain colon cells and help maintain their healthy function. The fermentation of fiber also promotes beneficial bacterial growth while inhibiting harmful bacteria that can contribute to cancer development (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Figure 2. Schematic showing the production of various short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) by the gut microbiome (Miya et al., 2023) . Since fiber slows down digestion, it can prevent blood glucose surges after eating and reduce the need for insulin spikes for individuals with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, fiber's role in weight management indirectly supports diabetes control because maintaining a healthy weight is important for insulin sensitivity and blood sugar regulation (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Key Takeaways A fiber-rich diet is associated with many health benefits, such as healthy bowel function and a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. By understanding how fiber works in the body, people can make informed dietary choices that support their long-term health. References Fiber. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/carbohydrates/fiber/ Functional Nutritionist NYC - Nutrition Expert Long Island. (n.d.). Philip Rabito, MD . Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://www.philiprabitomd.com/nutrition-doctor/ Kaczmarczyk, M. M., Miller, M. J., & Freund, G. G. (2012). The health benefits of dietary fiber: Beyond the usual suspects of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and colon cancer. Metabolism , 61 (8), 1058–1066.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2012.01.017 Lewine, H. E. (2024, February 5). Eat more fiber-rich foods to foster heart health . Harvard Health Publishing.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/eat-more-fiber-rich-foods-to-foster-heart-health Mann, E. R., Lam, Y. K., & Uhlig, H. H. (2024). Short-chain fatty acids: Linking diet, the microbiome and immunity. Nature Reviews Immunology , 24 (8), 577–595.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01014-8 Miya, T., Marima, R., Damane, B., Ledet, E., & Dlamini, Z. (2023). Dissecting Microbiome-Derived SCFAs in Prostate Cancer: Analyzing Gut Microbiota, Racial Disparities, and Epigenetic Mechanisms. Cancers , 15 , 4086.   https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15164086 Soluble vs. insoluble fiber: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia . (n.d.). National Library of Medicine. Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002136.htm uclahealth. (2023, April 23). Soluble fiber: What it is and why you need it | UCLA Health . UCLA Health.   https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/soluble-fiber-what-it-and-why-you-need-it Thumbnail image: UCSF Magazine

MSG (monosodium glutamate) is the sodium salt of one of the most commonly occurring amino acids, glutamic acid . This non-essential amino acid is naturally synthesized in the human body and in many high-protein foods, tomatoes, cheese, and mushrooms, creating the umami flavor described as savory and meaty (Glutamate, 2022) .  Although glutamic acid is abundant and safe, its counterpart MSG, an isolated and concentrated form, has gained a controversial reputation after a series of reactions in the American public during the 1960’s known as the Chinese Restaurant Syndrome . To understand more about its controversy, we must first, ask what is MSG? How is it different from natural glutamic acid? And why do so many love its signature flavor? Figure 1. Ch emical structures of glutamic acid, monosodium glutamate, and glutamate (Simpson, 2023) .  Mushroom's Natural Production of Glutamic Acid vs. MSG (Production and Flavor): To understand the differences between natural glutamic acid and MSG, it is important to understand their production processes. Glutamic acid is an amino acid created by the breakdown of a protein. This process can be seen in mushrooms, where glutamic acid is a natural byproduct of their protein metabolism. Additionally, mushrooms’ umami flavor can be further enhanced through fermentation , which breaks down even more proteins to increase the amount of glutamic acid. Similarly, artificially produced MSG is created through the fermentation of various foods like starch, sugar beets, sugarcane, or molasses through the bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum . The free glutamic acid is then separated, extracted, and then neutralized using sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to create its salt form. While both sources yield glutamic acid, the key to MSG’s intense umami flavor lies in how it delivers free glutamate in its most readily available form (Berg, 2019) . What Gives MSG its flavor?: Umami flavor is received through umami receptors on the tongue. The glutamate binds to these receptors which are distributed throughout the tongue. When MSG is consumed, it dissociates into sodium and glutamate in the mouth. The free glutamate, which is identical in structure to that found naturally in mushrooms and cheese, activates the umami receptors, triggering a distinct savory feeling. Unlike glutamic acid still bound within proteins – how it is normally found in food – which must be broken down during digestion, MSG delivers glutamate in its active form (Vandenbeuch & Kinnaman, 2016) .  This instant delivery is what gives MSG its signature intensity and why it is such a powerful flavor enhancer.  Figure 2. Flavor receptors in the tongue (Silberner, 2024) . Key Takeaways MSG, the most concentrated form of umami flavor, is unique because it instantly delivers glutamate to the tongue’s receptors. MSG is a favorite in the food industry and is used in a variety of foods around the world. Still, the stigma around it has led to bans and limitations of its use around the world. While some studies, individuals, and media claim it has adverse effects on health, most studies have come to the conclusion that current research is not adequate to come to a verdict about its health properties, and that more detailed research is needed (Zanfirescu et. al, 2019) . While its artificial production and incorporation into manufactured goods is contested, its natural production from everyday foods like mushrooms and cheese make its abundance a true wonder of food science. References Dr. Eric Berg DC. (2019, October 20). MSG vs Glutamate: What’s the Difference?  [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKTqXqD6dZ4 Freeman, M. (2006). Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: A literature review. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners , 18 (10), 482–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x Glutamate: What It Is & Function . (2022, April 25). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22839-glutamate Mantzioris, E. (2024, September 9). MSG is back. Is the idea it’s bad for us just a myth or food science?  The Conversation. https://doi.org/10.64628/AA.akft7ykkd Silberner, J. (2024, May 29). The Textbooks Were Wrong About How Your Tongue Works—The New York Times . The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/29/science/taste-buds-tongue-map.html Simpson, M. (2023, July 16). MSG — one of the largest food myths being pushed. Skeptical Raptor . https://www.skepticalraptor.com/skepticalraptorblog.php/msg-myth-one-of-the-most-persistent-in-the-pseudoscience-of-food/ Vandenbeuch, A., & Kinnamon, S. C. (2016). Glutamate: Tastant and Neuromodulator in Taste Buds123. Advances in Nutrition , 7 (4), 823S-827S. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.011304 Zanfirescu, A., Ungurianu, A., Tsatsakis, A. M., Nițulescu, G. M., Kouretas, D., Veskoukis, A., Tsoukalas, D., Engin, A. B., Aschner, M., & Margină, D. (2019). A review of the alleged health hazards of monosodium glutamate. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 18 (4), 1111–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12448 Thumbnail image: (Mantzioris, 2024)

Caffeine is one of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances in the world, valued for its stimulating effects on the brain and body. To understand how caffeine works, it is necessary to examine its biological mechanisms and the genetic factors that influence caffeine sensitivity. What is Caffeine? Caffeine is a naturally occurring central nervous system stimulant in the methylxanthine class, a group of drugs with stimulatory and bronchodilatory (or the ability to open up airways and lungs) effects. These drugs are often used to treat patients with conditions restricting airways, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and apnea (Gottwalt & Tadi, 2023) . For this reason, caffeine can be used to stimulate breathing in premature infants and prevent apnea , or pauses in breathing (Oñatibia-Astibia et al., 2016) . Though caffeine is primarily sourced from coffee beans, it is also found in certain varieties of tea and cacao beans. It is also used as an additive in soda and energy drinks. Prescription or over-the-counter drugs such as cold, allergy, and pain medications may also contain caffeine. Many weight-loss supplements also have caffeine (Petre, 2023) . Figure 1. Common sources of caffeine, with the amount of caffeine per serving (Lane, 2020) . How Caffeine Works in the Body Once caffeine is consumed, it gets absorbed by the gut which then flows into the bloodstream. Because caffeine is both water-soluble and fat-soluble, it travels easily in blood plasma and can cross the fatty membranes of the blood-brain barrier , a highly selective network of semi-permeable membranes that protects the central nervous system. After entering the brain, caffeine binds to adenosine receptors , blocking adenosine from attaching to them instead (Evans et al., 2024)  (Fig 2). Adenosine is a compound that normally promotes sleepiness and relaxation by slowing down neural activity. By preventing this process, caffeine increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and can improve concentration, reaction time, and even mood in the short term. Figure 2. Caffeine attaching to adenosine receptors and blocking adenosine (Jaeger, 2021) . Once in the body, caffeine is primarily broken down in the liver by an enzyme called CYP1A2 . This enzyme is responsible for metabolizing more than 90% of the caffeine consumed. Its activity helps determine how long caffeine stays in the body and how strong its effects are. The efficiency of CYP1A2 can influence everything from the intensity of stimulation to how soon someone may feel the need for another cup of coffee (Mahdavi et al., 2023) . The Genetics of Caffeine Sensitivity The CYP1A2 enzyme is responsible for the differences in how people respond to caffeine. Fast metabolizers break down caffeine quickly, meaning its effects wear off sooner. However, slow metabolizers process caffeine more slowly, leading to prolonged effects and a higher chance of side effects such as insomnia. Another important gene, ADORA2A, affects how the brain responds to caffeine by influencing the sensitivity of adenosine receptors. Genetic testing can reveal whether you have variants in these genes that impact your caffeine tolerance (Mégane Erblang et al., 2019) . Other factors like body weight, age, sex, and certain medications also influence how your body handles caffeine. Habitual caffeine intake can lead to tolerance, reducing its noticeable effects over time. Additionally, people with anxiety disorders or heart conditions may experience stronger negative reactions and are often advised to limit their caffeine intake (Liu et al., 2024) . Key Takeaways While caffeine offers benefits like increased alertness and improved focus, its effects can vary greatly from person to person. Factors such as genetics, enzyme activity, habitual use, and underlying health conditions all influence how caffeine is processed and tolerated. By understanding these variables, individuals can make more informed choices about their caffeine intake. References Erblang, M., Drogou, C., Gomez-Merino, D., Metlaine, A., Boland, A., Deleuze, J. F., Thomas, C., Sauvet, F., & Chennaoui, M. (2019). The Impact of Genetic Variations in ADORA2A in the Association between Caffeine Consumption and Sleep. Genes, 10(12), 1021. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10121021 Evans, J., Richards, J. R., & Battisti, A. S. (2025). Caffeine. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519490/ Gottwalt, B., & Tadi, P. (2025). Methylxanthines. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559165/ Jaeger, K. (2021, April 7). I Tried a Coffee Nap. Health in a Hurry. https://blogs.uww.edu/healthinahurry/2021/04/07/i-tried-a-coffee-nap/ Lane, A. (2020, February 12). Foods with Caffeine. Healthful Lane Nutrition. https://healthfullane.com/2020/02/12/foods-with-caffeine/ Liu, C., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Hu, Z., Tang, J., Xue, J., & Lu, W. (2024). Caffeine intake and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1270246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270246 Oñatibia-Astibia, A., Martínez-Pinilla, E., & Franco, R. (2016). The potential of methylxanthine-based therapies in pediatric respiratory tract diseases. Respiratory Medicine, 112, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2016.01.022 Petre, A. (2020, June 3). What Is Caffeine, and Is It Good or Bad for Health? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/what-is-caffeine

In the early 20th century, America was plagued. Not with disease but with nutritional deficiency, specifically iron deficiency. The population, at the time, had been suffering from widespread cases of iron deficiency anemia (Mitchell, 2024) , which is a condition where one's body cannot produce enough hemoglobin because of the lack of iron, leading to reduced oxygen delivery throughout the bloodstream and symptoms of dizziness, fatigue, and shortness or breath. With high rates of iron deficiency anemia throughout America in 1941, companies began looking for solutions (Niemesh, 2015) . The implementation a process called food fortification after World War II is largely considered a success in food systems and public health efforts, but are these efforts complete? How can we use food fortification to bolster our existing systems today? Figure 1: Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia and why it was such a pressing issue in the 1940s. The history of food fortification Food fortification is the process of adding vitamins, minerals, and other essential micronutrients into food to increase their nutritional value for public health purposes. The first instance of food fortification in the US was fortifying salt with iodine to compensate for iodine deficiencies within the population (Leung et al., 2012) . Later in the 1940s, when iron deficiency became a more u urgent public health issue, bread and flour products became a new target of interest. To expand from bread and flour products, people began to look for other alternatives (Whittaker et al., 2001) . Due to its convenience and presence in approximately 90% of consumer households, cereal was a logical choice for the next fortified food (Amidor, 2020) .  More recently, in 1996, the FDA administered regulations to enrich cereals with folic acid (Whittaker et al., 2001) , a synthetic form of the compound folate (“Folate”, 2012) which is essential in protein metabolism. Folic acid also plays key roles in producing healthy red blood cells, which is necessary for women during pregnancy and fetal development. These changes were implemented to reduce the chances of neural tube defects during pregnancy. Now, cereal has been fortified to also include various B vitamins, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, calcium, and zinc ( Fortified Cereals , n.d.) . Figure 2: Nutrition Facts of Honey Nut Cheerios. Note the percentages of each micronutrient, vitamin, and mineral. The process of fortifying cereal with iron To fortify cereal specifically for iron, non-heme iron is typically used. Non-heme iron is derived from plants and is commonly found in plant-based foods. It is not to be confused with heme iron which comes from animal products since it binds to animal proteins and muscular tissue. Non-heme iron can also be isolated from animal products, but that is only due to the fact that some animals consume plant sources (“Iron,” 2019) .  Non-heme iron makes up the majority of western diets, approximately 85-90%. Unlike heme iron, it is less easily absorbed into the body, but it can be enhanced with the consumption of vitamin C, perfect when drinking a glass of orange juice, for example (Tan, 2017) . The specific form of non-heme iron is typically found in the form of ferrous sulfate or electrolytic iron that is added during manufacturing of the cereal. These compounds are mixed into the dough before being shaped and baked (Rabinowitz, 2025) . Using non-heme is also stable, cost-effective, and easy to incorporate into processed foods without altering their texture (Panoff, 2024) . Figure 3: Schematic of how flour products are fortified. Downsides to Fortified Cereal Although fortified cereal provides necessary nutrients as opposed to unfortified cereals, people should still cautiously consume them. One study conducted in 2001 by Whittaker et al.  found that the majority of cereal brands contain more than the labeled percentages of both folic acid and dietary iron (Whittaker et al., 2001) . And, with most consumers eating more than one serving size per day, they may be at risk for overconsuming these nutrients. Eating cautiously and in moderation is the best way to prevent excessive intake. Cereals also tend to be high in added sugars. In fact, according to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, breakfast cereals are one of the highest sources of added sugar in an American’s diet. Additionally, because of the additional processing fortification brings, most cereals are low in fiber, which is necessary for healthy digestion (Foley, 2026) . This poses the question, can cereal fortification only come at the expense of exacerbating other nutritional needs? In addition, one study demonstrated that calcium may inhibit how much non-heme iron is taken up. With milk as a high source of calcium, cereal paired with milk may not be conducive to optimal iron absorption in the intestinal lining. In a paper written by Lönnerdal, a researcher at the University of California-Davis in 2010, it is mentioned that calcium binds to the same protein—called the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) —as non-heme iron and engages in competition or interference. If calcium binds the DMT1 protein first, then the non-heme iron cannot, and therefore, non-heme iron has a harder time being absorbed by intestinal cells. Figure 4: Iron uptake by enterocytes (intestinal absorptive cells). The process by which dietary iron (Fe) is absorbed into the cell through the DMT1 protein. If calcium was present, it could take up the space in the DMT1 receptor that the iron binds to, rendering iron absorption more difficult. Towards the end of the study, the study speculates that calcium inhibition may only be short-term, and show no concern to long-term effects (Lönnerdal, 2010) ; however, another study from 2011 observed that calcium may cause greater inhibition when consumed in more than 800mg or the equivalent of milk in about 2.5 servings of cereal (Gaitán et al., 2011) . If even the most obvious confounding variable, milk, can obstruct the initial purpose of fortified cereal, what are other factors influencing iron absorption that have not been considered yet?  Key Takeaways Fortified cereal is a primary example of how the food systems that can be redesigned to benefit public health are oftentimes also imperfect and incomplete. Although the government was future-oriented to recognize iron deficiency as an urgent public health crisis, was it executed well? Are there ways to fortify food without drawbacks? Can we improve how cereal delivers nutrients without raising added sugars or diminishing fiber? What are other factors that nutrition-related aspects fortification may have negatively impacted? Are there other foods capable of being fortified? Cereal serves as just one example of the questions that researchers, manufacturers, and public health experts still need to consider. The question of possibility still lies ahead, but with active engagement, knowledge, and innovation, there may be a future where food fortification will be beneficial, sustainable, and without the negative side effects seen now. References Amidor, T. (2020, March 16). Cereals and Fortified Nutrients: What You Need to Know About the Changing Levels . US News & World Report. https://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/eat-run/articles/cereals-and-fortified-nutrients Folate (Folic Acid)—Vitamin B9 • The Nutrition Source. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/folic-acid/ Foley, J. (2026, May 5). What Is Fortified Cereal? Benefits, Drawbacks, and How to Choose—GoodRx . GoodRx. https://www.goodrx.com/well-being/diet-nutrition/what-is-fortified-cereal Fortified Cereals—Vitamins and Minerals . (n.d.). Nestlé Cereals. Retrieved February 8, 2026, from https://www.nestle-cereals.com/mena/me-en/nutrition/fortification Gaitán, D., Flores, S., Saavedra, P., Miranda, C., Olivares, M., Arredondo, M., López de Romaña, D., Lönnerdal, B., & Pizarro, F. (2011). Calcium does not inhibit the absorption of 5 milligrams of nonheme or heme iron at doses less than 800 milligrams in nonpregnant women. The Journal of Nutrition , 141 (9), 1652–1656. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.138651 Iron. (2019, September 16). The Nutrition Source . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/iron/ Leung, A. M., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N. (2012). History of U.S. Iodine Fortification and Supplementation. Nutrients , 4 (11), 1740–1746. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4111740 Lönnerdal, B. (2010). Calcium and Iron Absorption—Mechanisms and Public Health Relevance. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research , 80 (45), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000036 Mitchell, K. (2024, February 23). Iron Deficiency Anemia (Low Iron): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment . WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/iron-deficiency-anemia Niemesh, G. T. (2015). Ironing Out Deficiencies: Evidence from the United States on the Economic Effects of Iron Deficiency. Journal of Human Resources , 50 (4), 910–958. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.50.4.910 Panoff, L. (2024, May 31). Iron in Baby Cereal: Best Uses, Safety, and the...  Else Nutrition. https://elsenutrition.com/a/resources/nutrition/iron-in-baby-cereal-importance Rabinowitz. (2025, September 25). High Iron Cereal & Iron Fortified Cereals . Smart Eats. https://smarteatspantry.com/blogs/iron/guide-to-iron-fortified-cereals Tan, V. (2017, June 3). How to Increase the Absorption of Iron from Foods  [4/24/2023]. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/increase-iron-absorption Whittaker, P., Tufaro, P. R., & Rader, J. I. (2001). Iron and folate in fortified cereals. Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 20 (3), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2001.10719039 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Rachel Linder from Eat this, Not That!

Some of the most consumed herbs and spices were popularized due to their medicinal  properties. Turmeric, for example, was first used in India over 4000 years ago in a system of holistic medicine called Ayurveda. This versatile spice was used to improve digestion, relieve arthritis, to inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms, etc. It was uncovered in its chemical composition that turmeric contains the compound curcumin, which is known to inhibit signal transduction pathways responsible for tumor growth. It has demonstrated promising efficacy in treating cancer, diabetes, metabolic syndromes and some neurological disorders in a clinical study with a diverse trial group (Kunnumakkara et al., 2023). Even today, it still has the same roles in medicine and food, as a common supplement or in meals as turmeric powder (Kato, 2025) . There are hundreds of examples like turmeric of plants which are known not just for their taste, but their health benefits too. This article explores the journey of medicine from these plants in their purest form to the pills we consume daily.  Figure 1: Display of tumeric   Evolution of therapeutical herbs   The first known written record of medicinal herbs comes from a Sumerian clay tablet from 2600 BCE. It listed over 250 plants used in different herbal recipes (Norman, 2009) .   Medicine back then was based on trial and error, and knowledge was mostly passed down by word of mouth. Herbal remedies were also closely tied to religion and spirituality—healers or shamans would often give out plant-based treatments during ceremonies. In the Middle Ages, herbal medicine started becoming more organized. Monasteries in Europe grew herb gardens and began documenting how different plants were used. But even then, a lot of it was still mixed with superstition (Hajar, 2012) . Later on, in the 19th century, scientists started isolating the actual compounds in herbs, which helped make stronger and more targeted remedies. This shift eventually led to herbal medicine being used less, but many of those same plants are still part of food today just in new forms, like teas, powders, oils, or supplements.  Figure 2. A juxtoposition of modern medicine and medicinal herbs. Modern uses of herbal medicine in food Although herbal treatments aren’t common, the benefits of adding spices to diets has  been thoroughly studied. A few examples are how cinnamon can lower blood sugar,  turmeric can reduce inflammation, and ginger can help relieve nausea (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2025 ) .   These spices were used thousands of years ago, for these same benefits, and modern studies have shown that these truly improve health. You eat these herbs and spices every day, so with every bite, remember the powerful impact they can have on your health. References  5 Spices with Healthy Benefits . (2024, June 20). John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/5-spices-with-healthy-benefits Hajar, R. (2012). The Air of History (Part II) Medicine in the Middle Ages. Heart Views : The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association , 13 (4), 158–162. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-705X.105744 Kato, J., & University Researchcentre, K. I. (2025). The Evolution of Herbal Medicine: From Traditional Practices to Scientific Validation. Eurasian Experiment Journal of Biological Sciences , 6 (11), 10–17. Kunnumakkara, A. B., Hegde, M., Parama, D., Girisa, S., Kumar, A., Daimary, U. D., Garodia, P., Yenisetti, S. C., Oommen, O. V., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2023). Role of Turmeric and Curcumin in Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases: Lessons Learned from Clinical Trials. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science , 6 (4), 447–518. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.2c00012 The Largest Surviving Medical Treatise from Ancient Mesopotamia: History of Information . (n.d.). Jeremy Norman’s History of Information. Retrieved January 31, 2026, from https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2155 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Sarah Shwager