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We all know that social media gives us dopamine rushes. But, did you know that those dopamine rushes can influence how our appetite is regulated? By viewing appetizing food-related Reels or TikToks, our brain’s reward centers are activated and increase our hunger and likelihood of impulsive eating. As a result, our appetites are becoming more and more dysregulated, inconsistent, and intense because of social media. Figure 1. Food content on social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok is ubiquitous. (LaRose, n.d.). Many of us have been there: the late night scrolling session turned into uncontrollable cravings, scrumptious meals appearing after every swipe. The visual stimulation of food triggers what is known as hedonic hunger, which is a pleasure-based desire to eat palatable, visually appealing foods even when our true physiological hunger is low. This brings us to another significant distinction we must make: the difference between hunger and appetite. They are NOT the same things. Hunger, as alluded to before, is the physical need for food (regulated entirely homeostatically), whereas appetite is the desire for food (regulated both homeostatically and non-homeostatically). Appetite, unlike hunger, is also influenced by psychological and environmental cues, not only biological ones (The Difference Between, n.d.). To understand more why our appetite is so malleable because of social media influence, we must understand 1) the regulatory psychobiological system called the satiety cascade and 2) how external cues trigger hedonic responses in our body. What is the Satiety Cascade? The satiety cascade is the biological systems that causes hunger. However, instead of getting lost in the biological complexities of the system, for initial simplicity purposes it is easier to think about the satiety cascade through how we feel before, during, and after meal cycles. Dr. Lucy Chambers, a corresponding author in the British Nutrition Foundation, neatly maps out this cycle in her article “Food texture and the satiety cascade” (Chambers, 2016). She includes a graphic demonstrating that the cycle begins when a person eats food. In the diagram below, this phase is indicated by “Food choice” to show that food has been consumed. The next phase, satiation, is the immediate fullness after eating the meal. Satiety, the third phase to be distinguished from satiation, is the long-term suppression of appetite until the next meal (Chambers, 2016). Think of this cycle as a bucket of water with a leak at the bottom. When you eat, you fill the bucket with water, the first 5% leaked out is satiation, where you still feel full after a meal. Then, satiety is the rest of the water that is leaked out from the bucket until you hit a threshold where your body tells you to eat, or fill your bucket again. Figure 2. Schematic of the cycle of food consumption (indicated as "Food choice"), satiation, and satiety. Note that satiation occurs directly after a meal (short-term) while satiety is the prolonged period between meals where one does not feel hungry (long-term) (Chambers, 2016). Biological Features of the Satiety Cascade Now that the satiety cascade system is more familiar, we can now jump into the various biological factors that regulate the satiety cascade cycle. Both satiation and satiety are controlled by many sensory, cognitive, and hormonal signals within the body. However, they differ in that satiation is regulated by gastric and intestinal mechanisms while satiety is governed by episodic and tonic signals (Beneham, 2009). Satiation Diving first into satiation activation, most people recognize that the physical fullness of the stomach, or gastric distension, can cause one to feel full. The reason is because gastric distension causes mechanical stretching of the stomach, which activates stretch receptors or mechanoreceptors. In turn, the mechanoreceptors trigger the vagus nerve to send messages to the brainstem and hypothalamus to reduce the desire to eat (Borer, 2023). Pairing synergistically with gastric distention is the hormone cholecystokinin (CKK) that slows the emptying of the stomach, prolonging gastric distention, strengthening vagus nerve signals to further reduce food consumption (Kissileff et al., 2003). Figure 3. Gastric distention (stomach expansion) triggers mechanoreceptors to send signals to the brain via the vagus nerve to trigger the feeling of fullness. Cholecystokinin (CKK) assists in the process by slowing down gastric emptying, intensifying the signals from the vagus nerve (Nässel & Wu, 2022). Satiation also increases due to signals from the intestinal lining and initial digestion/absorption process. When food moves out of the stomach into the small intestine. The small intestine then breaks down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into their respective components: sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids, respectively (Beneham, 2009). Satiety Episodic Signals The intestines are where satiation seamlessly transitions into satiety. As mentioned earlier, satiety consists of both episodic and tonic signals. Episodic signals take place in response to eating food (which can be remembered by responses caused by episodes of food eating). Gut hormones’ effects on appetite are part of these episodic signals. One of the primary signals happens while digesting proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Digestion significantly suppresses the levels of ghrelin, or the hormone attributed to increasing hunger, signaling to the brain that one is full. Unlike ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), responsible for gastric emptying, increases insulin levels for blood sugar level control, reduces hunger, and releases in response to nutrient absorption. Peptide YY (PYY), is another player in gut signaling as it slows digestion and for prolonged nutrient absorption (Gomez & Greeley, 2013). As with ghrelin inhibition, and GLP-1 elevation, and PPY increases, episodic signals play a key role in maintaining long-term satiety and hunger suppression. Figure 4. Schematic of how ghrelin, GLP-1, and PYY work together to regulate satiety. Ghrelin increases gastric emptying and hunger. However, because digestion inhibits ghrelin production (as seen with the red line with a horizontal end below ghrelin), then gastric emptying is slowed, and we feel full. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) both work to inhibit gastric emptying, amplifying the feeling of fullness (Steinert et al., 2017). Tonic Signals Tonic signals are another major distinction between satiation and satiety. Tonic signals serve as a communication pipeline between the brain and body that relays information about fat storage so that energy expenditure and intake are balanced. Leptin, a peptide hormone, is released from fat cells. It directly binds to hypothalamus receptors to inhibit hunger-activating neurons while stimulating satiety-activating neurons (Kharbanda et al., 2022). An analogy for leptin would be an inventory manager for a store. The inventory manager keeps track of if there are enough items in stock (sufficient fat storage), and once the shelves hit max capacity (max fat storage), the manager stops ordering more goods from the supplier (turns hunger off). Additionally, insulin, a metabolic hormone released from the pancreas that controls blood sugar levels, is a substantial influencer of appetite. Insulin reduces the brain’s dopaminergic reward system to continue eating food. Insulin also decreases the tastiness of food that the brain perceives, and removes strong hedonic temptation to prevent intaking more food (Hallschmid et al., 2021). Figure 5. Leptin and insulin work in tandem to create the feeling of fullness through tonic signaling. On the way, they bind to hypothalamic receptors (leptin to ObRb and insulin to IR). Since leptin and insulin are both at high concentrations after consuming food, they excite appetite-suppressing neurons (POMC) while inhibiting appetite-stimulating ones (NPY) (Thon et al., 2016). HEDONIC RESPONSES Now that the satiety cascade has been covered, it is now time to discuss the second key component of appetite. Before learning about how hedonic tendencies influence appetite control, it is first important to understand the psychology behind why humans can be so easily guided by hedonic responses. In psychology, hedonic theory is the concept that individuals strive to seek the experience that maximizes pleasure and minimizes displeasure (Zenko & Ladwig, 2024). Physiologically speaking, hedonic actions are often bound to the brain’s reward pathways, powered by dopamine (wanting) and opioids (pleasure) which can be reinforced by repetition (Finlayson & Dalton, 2012). If hedonic habits can be perpetuated by patterns, then there is no wonder that they can also be influenced by emotional, social, environmental, behavioral, and cultural norms. Recircling back to social media, which relates to all five of these influences, it is also no surprise that social media is one of today’s most potent dysregulators of appetite (Dumlu Bi̇lgi̇n et al., 2024). In fact, social media does what most hedonic influences can do to appetite: disrupt the satiety cascade to favor eating even when not physically hungry, shifting the primary reason for consuming food from nourishment to palatability. Neurologically speaking, eating hedonically can increase ghrelin levels and endocannabinoids (Monteleone et al., 2012), which enhance reward pathways and disrupt appetite regularity (Endocannabinoids, n.d.). Key Takeaways Hedonic eating, as most actions, are not harmful in moderation. That being said, it is important to recognize the causes of appetite-influencing stimuli like social media. If left unchecked, social media and other stimuli like food advertisements, availability, and social pressures, may cause fluctuating meal-times, intensify cravings, increased anxiety, lower self-esteem, and other nutritional problems. Learning about appetite’s mechanisms and patterns may also assist in understanding our own bodies. By becoming aware of our body’s tendencies and habits, it may also bring clarity to other aspects of life. To re-emphasize, hedonic eating, as many other things, is not to be antagonized. Rather, it is important to find balance between control and indulgence, as should be done in all aspects of life. References Beneham, B. (2009, May 22). Satiation, satiety and their effects on eating behaviour. Nutrition Bulletin. Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2009.01753.x Borer, K. T. (2023). Are gastrointestinal signals the principal guides to human appetite and energy balance? Medical Research Archives, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i1.3548 Chambers, L. (2016). Food texture and the satiety cascade. Nutrition Bulletin, 41(3), 277–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/nbu.12221 Dumlu Bi̇lgi̇n, G., Keküllüoğlu Tan, M., Yıldırım, G. A., Sarıgül, S., Güzel, D., & Sökeli̇, N. (2024). Elucidating the role of social media usage on eating behavior and hedonic hunger in college students: A cross-sectional design. Current Psychology, 43(34), 27613–27622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06350-5 Endocannabinoids. (n.d.). Fisher Scientific. Retrieved July 24, 2026, from https://www.fishersci.com/us/en/browse/80013504/endocannabinoids Finlayson, G., & Dalton, M. (2012). Hedonics of Food Consumption: Are Food ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ Viable Targets for Appetite Control in the Obese? Current Obesity Reports, 1(1), 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-011-0007-2 Gomez, G. A., & Greeley, G. H. Jr. (2013). Peptide YY. Pancreapedia: The Exocrine Pancreas Knowledge Base. https://doi.org/10.3998/panc.2013.6 Hallschmid, M., Higgs, S., Thienel, M., Ott, V., & Lehnert, H. (2021, March 14). Postprandial Administration of Intranasal Insulin Intensifies Satiety and Reduces Intake of Palatable Snacks in Women. Diabetes. American Diabetes Association. https://doi.org/10.2337/db11-1390 Kharbanda, C., Bansal, S., & Aneja, P. S. (2022). Role and Significance of Ghrelin and Leptin in Hunger, Satiety, and Energy Homeostasis. Journal of the Scientific Society. Ovid. https://doi.org/10.4103/jss.jss_126_21 Kissileff, H. R., Carretta, J. C., Geliebter, A., & Pi-Sunyer, F. X. (2003). Cholecystokinin and stomach distension combine to reduce food intake in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 285(5), R992–R998. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00272.2003 LaRose, A. (n.d.). Social Media and Restaurants: Do I Really Need It? Scott Social Marketing. Retrieved July 24, 2026, from https://www.scottsocialmarketing.com/blog/social-media-restaurants Monteleone, P., Piscitelli, F., Scognamiglio, P., Monteleone, A. M., Canestrelli, B., Di Marzo, V., & Maj, M. (2012). Hedonic Eating Is Associated with Increased Peripheral Levels of Ghrelin and the Endocannabinoid 2-Arachidonoyl-Glycerol in Healthy Humans: A Pilot Study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97(6), E917–E924. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-3018 Nässel, D., & Wu, S.-F. (2022, March). Cholecystokinin/sulfakinin peptide signaling: Conserved roles at the intersection between feeding, mating and aggression. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-022-04214-4 Steinert, R. E., Feinle-Bisset, C., Asarian, L., Horowitz, M., Beglinger, C., & Geary, N. (2017). Ghrelin, CCK, GLP-1, and PYY(3–36): Secretory Controls and Physiological Roles in Eating and Glycemia in Health, Obesity, and After RYGB. Physiological Reviews, 97(1), 411–463. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2014 The Difference Between Hunger and Appetite. (n.d.). Fitness First. Retrieved July 24, 2026, from https://www.fitnessfirst.com.au/get-there/the-difference-between-hunger-and-appetite/ Thon, M., Hosoi, T., & Ozawa, K. (2016). Possible Integrative Actions of Leptin and Insulin Signaling in the Hypothalamus Targeting Energy Homeostasis. ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2016.00138 Zenko, Z., & Ladwig, M. A. (2024, December 14). 12.3: Hedonic Theory. Medicine LibreTexts. https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sports_and_Exercise/Essentials_of_Exercise_and_Sport_Psychology__-_An_Open_Access_Textbook_(Zenko_and_Jones)/12%3A_Affective_Responses_to_Exercise-_Measurement_Considerations_for_Practicing_Professionals/12.03%3A_Hedonic_Theory Thumbnail image: (LaRose, n.d.)

Microplastics, environmental depletion, waste, pollution, health crisis. All words taking over today’s biggest headlines and news outlets. These concerns do contain harsh truths. Plastics are a huge environmental issue because of their long-life spans and centuries needed to decay. Figure 1. Plastic wasteland piled high with plastic products (Wasteland, n.d.). Therefore bioplastics, synthetic plastics made from biomass with biodegradable properties, are becoming a growing topic of research. Current bioplastic products are made from polymers of natural acids or through microorganism fermentation processes. What is now entering the conversation are the use of aquatic weeds and agricultural wastes for new bioplastic innovation due to their natural high-fiber content, renewability, and cost-effectiveness (Ungprasoot et al., 2021). The promise of repurposing aquatic weeds became particularly appealing to young Joseph Nguthiru, who along with his several classmates at Egerton University, were trapped for 5 hours in a dense forest of water hyacinths on Lake Naivasha in Kenya. Their experience led them to innovatively coin the idea of turning repurposing water hyacinths, a prevalent invasive species into the plastic of the future (Meet the Obama Leader, n.d.). But first of all, what makes water hyacinth such a successful candidate for bioplastic production? Why Water Hyacinth? Native to the Amazon, water hyacinth was introduced to many countries as an ornamental, decorative plant. However, it quickly took over many aquatic ecosystems due to its extremely rapid reproduction in ten days or less when cultivated in ideal conditions (Water Hyacinth, n.d.). After the weed inhabits the surface of the body of water, it blocks sunlight from reaching the submerged native plants, and it also reduces the level of dissolved oxygen for other organisms to use (Water Hyacinth, n.d.). For regulation purposes, water hyacinth also tends to cause blockages in irrigation systems or waterways, which results in billions of dollars to control costs and economic losses (Department of Energy, 2025). Its invasive population, disruption of resources, and damage to nearby species to water systems makes it incredibly difficult to deal with and creates environmental vicissitudes that are challenging to accommodate. Figure 2. Workers remove water hyacinth from clogging waterways in Indonesia (Neumann, 2024). Besides efforts to eliminate its environmental invasiveness and economic impact, water hyacinth contains various components that make it ideal for bioplastic production. Water hyacinths contain high levels of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, all compounds that can be used to make products biodegradable. Additionally, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) can be extracted from water hyacinth which has non-toxic, odorless, and tasteless properties (Kusuma et al., 2024), rendering it useful for extending shelf-life for packaged goods. When it was discovered that water hyacinth contained appropriate components to be utilized in optimizing bioplastic functionality, it was undeniably a suitable option to valorize for production (Kusuma et al., 2024) . How did HyaPak Transform Bioplastic Production Returning back to Nguthiru’s mission to turn water hyacinth’s overpopulation into a profitable company, he founded the company HyaPak to turn aquatic wastes into functional, biodegradable plastics. His model starts with harvesting the hyacinths, a system that creates green jobs and incentivizes cleanup of nearby bodies of water in local communities. Then the weeds are dried and shipped to Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, to be manufactured. Within the manufacturing plants, cellulose and CMC are synthesized via techniques like dewaxing, bleaching, alkaline hydrolysis (Chaiwarit et al., 2022), and alkylation (CMC only) (Saputra et al., 2014). Once cellulose and CMC are isolated, food-grade additives like glycerine (a natural plasticizer) and starches (i.e. tapioca or corn) are combined into the mixture to give the plastic structure, higher tensile strength, flexibility, and increased biodegradability (Duruin et al., 2022). Figure 3. Water hyacinth clogs Lake Naivasha in Kenya, making it challenging for locals to transport themselves through. This image shows fisherman Simon Macharia working with Hyapak to remove water hyacinth from the lake (Komo, 2025). HyaPak currently produces and sells seedling bags which can be placed into the soil and release nutrients as they decompose (3-12 months in soil/water). They also have developed parcel mailers, floral wraps, and food carton linings, all of which have similar properties to polyethylene and polypropylene, the most common commercial plastics found in food containers, bottle caps, and plastic bags (HyaPak, n.d.). Figure 4. Co-founder Joseph Nguthiru poses with Hyapaks bioplastic seedling bags (Staff, 2025). Key Takeaways In this day and age, it is becoming increasingly imperative to understand how to implement sustainability into new consumer products. With plastic being so ubiquitous across agriculture, food packaging, and so much more, it becomes difficult to remodel or even reimagine the existing systems. However, organizations such as Hyapak, have demonstrated that the problems may be new solutions and that innovation can be innocuous and even beneficial to both the environment and industry. References Chaiwarit, T., Chanabodeechalermrung, B., Kantrong, N., Chittasupho, C., & Jantrawut, P. (2022). Fabrication and Evaluation of Water Hyacinth Cellulose-Composited Hydrogel Containing Quercetin for Topical Antibacterial Applications. Gels, 8(12), 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8120767 Department of Energy, E. and C. A. (2025, July 14). Water hyacinth. Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action. (Victoria). Agriculture Victoria. https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/state-prohibited-weeds/water-hyacinth Duruin, A. A., Lalantacon, X. F., Leysa, J. G., Lll, R. L., Obena, R. A., Sapal, A., Leysa, M., Valdez, A., & Abusama, H. (2022). Potential Production of Bioplastic from Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering, 2(2), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.17509/ajse.v2i2.37801 HyaPak. (n.d.). Retrieved July 14, 2026, from https://hyapak.com/ Komo, N. (2025, January 19). How the invasive water hyacinth is threatening fishermen’s livelihoods on a popular Kenyan lake. AP News. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/kenya-water-hyacinth-invasive-fishing-2ea35d0203bc995a36ddbe32386c1141 Kusuma, H. S., Jaya, D. E. C., Nasution, S. A., Mongilong, R. K., Fachri, D. M., & Afifah, D. K. (2024). Transformation of water hyacinth into biodegradable film added with carboxymethyl cellulose and chitosan and its characterization. Materials Today Communications, 41, 111028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.111028 Meet the Obama leader in Africa turning invasive plants into a plastic alternative. (n.d.). Obama Foundation. Retrieved July 14, 2026, from https://www.obama.org/stories/innovation-in-action-joseph-nguthiru/ Neumann, N. (2024, February 26). High economic damage caused by invasive aquatic plants worldwide | IGB [Science of the Total Environment]. High Economic Damage Caused by Invasive Aquatic Plants Worldwide. https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/high-economic-damage-caused-invasive-aquatic-plants-worldwide Saputra, A., Qadhayna, L., & Pitaloka, A. (2014). Synthesis and Characterization of Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) from Water Hyacinth Using Ethanol-Isobutyl Alcohol Mixture as the Solvents. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applications, 5, 36–40. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJCEA.2014.V5.347 Staff, C. N. N. (2025, January 7). This alien plant is lethal for the environment. Now it’s being turned into a plastic to regrow forests. CTVNews. CTVNews. https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/article/this-alien-plant-is-lethal-for-the-environment-now-its-being-turned-into-a-plastic-to-regrow-forests/ Ungprasoot, P., Muanruksa, P., Tanamool, V., Winterburn, J., & Kaewkannetra, P. (2021). Ungprasoot, P., Muanruksa, P., Tanamool, V., Winterburn, J., & Kaewkannetra, P. (2021). Valorization of Aquatic Weed and Agricultural Residues for Innovative Biopolymer Production and Their Biodegradation. Polymers, 13(17), 2838. Https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172838. Polymers, 13(17), 2838. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172838 Wasteland: Streams of Waste Festival. (n.d.). Just Peace. Retrieved July 14, 2026, from https://www.justpeacethehague.org/en/event/wasteland-streams-of-waste-festival Water hyacinth. (n.d.). Brisbane City Council. Retrieved July 14, 2026, from https://weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au/weeds/water-hyacinth Thumbnail image courtesy of (Wasteland, n.d.)

On a recent viewing of the show Hot Ones , where celebrities eat wings that get progressively spicier while being interviewed. As the wings continue to get spicier and the Scoville level passes 40,000, I can feel my own throat and skin radiating with heat as I continue watching them even though I’m not the one eating the wings. More so, I sympathize with the urge for celebrities to grab a bottle of milk to drown out the heat. That urge was the moment I grew interested in why milk relieves the spicy sensation. Why is milk so effective at removing the pain, and what other foods are able to do the same? Chemical Properties of Milk To first understand why milk is so powerful at calming down the pain from spice, it is important to discuss its composition. Milk, especially whole milk, contains fats and a protein called casein , which constitutes about 80% of the total protein in the drink (“Casein” 2026) . Additionally casein is an amphiphilic substance that contains both hydrophilic (water-loving and polar) and hydrophobic (water-fearing and nonpolar) ends (Griffiths, 2015) . How Milk Reduces Spicy Sensations The reason why milk is so good at removing the spicy taste from our mouths is because the hydrophobic ends of casein and the nonpolar fats can attract and dissolve the capsaicin molecules, or the primary active compounds in chili peppers that give them their spicy sensation (Acapulcos, 2012) , which are also nonpolar and hydrophobic (Griffiths, 2015) . You can think of casein and fats as soap that washes the pain receptors and cleans the mouth from the capsaicin. This is also the reason why skim milk, fat free milks, or plant-based milks do not relieve the spice as much as whole milk, which has an abundance of casein and fat molecules ( Why Does Milk Help with Spice? , n.d.) . Figure 1. Casein molecules pulling capsaicin molecules from the pain receptors in the mouth, ameliorating the spicy sensation ( Chillies: Hot but Very Cool , n.d.) . How Other Substances Influence Spice Perception There are several other substances that can help relieve the pain in ways similar and distinct from milk. Because of milk’s effectiveness, it is no surprise that other dairy products high in fat and casein like yogurt, ice cream, and sour cream also reduce spiciness. Sugary, non-fizzy drinks, while not as effective as dairy products, can help reduce the spice through a phenomenon called mixture suppression. Mixture suppression is a product of the sugary sensation overpowering or dampening the pain of the spice ( What Makes Spice Go Away , 2026) , making sugary drinks like Kool-aid effective in reducing spice. You can think of sugar acting like a distractor to the pain. On the opposite end, other substances actually exacerbate the pain from spiciness. One example is water. Because water is a polar solvent and lacks the casein and fat composition as milk, it cannot remove capsaicin from the pain receptors in the mouth. Rather its immiscibility , or inability to mix with non-polar capsaicin, actually spreads capsaicin around the mouth, leading to an even more irritable sensation (Dand, 2023) . Even worse than water is sparkling or carbonated water. In the previous paragraph, it was emphasized that sugary, non-fizzy  drinks would help relieve pain because fizziness can cancel out the pain relief from the sugar. Fizzy drinks, specifically sparkling water, also spreads capsaicin throughout the mouth, but it is strengthened by the carbonation. The carbonation can also irritate inflamed tissues in the mouth, causing the pain to increase dramatically ( ScienceShot , n.d.) . Figure 2. Spectrum of drinks that are the best through worst at mitigating the milk sensation  (Boyd, 2019) . Key Takeaways It is so interesting to see the effects of how different fluids create polar differences in how prominent the spicy sensation is in the mouth. Additionally, it's also fascinating to see how chemical properties completely rewire the effectiveness of a drink. Now, when I turn on Hot Ones  and I imagine eating the wings with the celebrities, I can thank the host for recommending milk instead of water. And, most importantly, I can thank my genetics that I’m not lactose intolerant! References Acapulcos. (2012, December 11). Capsaicin – Why Do Hot Peppers Burn? Acapulcos .   https://acapulcos.net/capsaicin-why-do-hot-peppers-burn/ Boyd, C. (2019, June 26). Why you should drink MILK after eating extra spicy foods . Mail Online.   https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-7182749/Why-drink-MILK-eating-extra-spicy-foods.html Casein | Definition, Properties, Manufacture, & Uses . (2026, April 6).   https://www.britannica.com/science/casein Chillies: Hot but very Cool . (n.d.). Inevitable Science. Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://www.google.com/url?q=https://inevitablescience.wixsite.com/inevsci/post/chillies-hot-but-very-cool&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1776607963870015&usg=AOvVaw0pBxEaxthGzyeShFGskt4c Dand, K. (2023, August 11). Why Water Sucks At Cooling Spicy Sensations . Food Republic.   https://www.foodrepublic.com/1358883/why-water-cant-cool-spicy-sensation/ Griffiths, S. (2015, December 2). Why you should NEVER drink water after spicy food . Mail Online.   https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3342526/So-S-chilli-peppers-tingle-tongue-Capsaicin-compound-binds-pain-receptors-milk-really-does-help.html ScienceShot: Soda’s Spicy Secret . (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceshot-sodas-spicy-secret What Makes Spice Go Away: Milk, Sugar, and More . (2026, March 12). ScienceInsights.   https://scienceinsights.org/what-makes-spice-go-away-milk-sugar-and-more/ Why Does Milk Help with Spice? Spicy Food Needs Milk . (n.d.). The Dairy Alliance. Retrieved April 19, 2026, from   https://thedairyalliance.com/blog/why-your-spicy-food-needs-milk Thumbnail image: photo Aliona Gumeniuk

Excess sodium intake is a major worldwide problem. When sodium enters the bloodstream, to maintain the chemical balance, the body retains more water. This increase in fluids in the bloodstream gradually elevates the blood pressure, which can lead to hypertension over time. This stress on the cardiovascular system greatly increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and many other health concerns; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that increased sodium intake leads to 1.89 million annual deaths ( Sodium , 2025) . These health risks are becoming a major concern and are exacerbated to widespread shifts in the modern diet. Processed, packaged, and restaurant foods are all guilty of increasing salt intake to maintain flavor. How can we decrease sodium intake without compromising flavor and richness in our meals?  Figure 1. An image of the Kirin Electric Salt Spoon (Andronico, 2025) . The Product  In May 2024, the large Japanese corporation Kirin launched commercial Electric Salt Spoons in Japan. Kirin later showcased it at the 2025 Consumer Electronics Show where it won two CES Innovation Awards. This spoon, slightly larger than a normal utensil, uses an electric current on the tongue to enhance the saltiness of any meal. This electric and taste interface has been studied since 2011, when the first paper was published by Meiji University of Japan. Kirin partnered with the university's lab in 2019 to help develop and refine this technology, creating taste-enhancing straws, forks, and chopsticks along the way, leading to the now more accessible $127 spoon ( Salty Spoon , 2024) . How It Works   The brain perceives saltiness through special taste receptors — one key type being the Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC) (Jachimowicz-Rogowska & Winiarska-Mieczan, 2023) . When sodium reaches it, it depolarizes the receptor cell, triggering action potentials and neurotransmitter release that send signals to the brain. The Kirin Electric Salt Spoon creates an electric field, concentrating the sodium ions at the ENaC receptors (Coxworth, 2025) . Due to the electric field, consumers are able to increase perceived salt taste without increasing their salt intake. Therefore, eating foods with low sodium content that are recommended for patients is made more enjoyable. Figure 2. How the ENaC receptors work to sense sodium (Jachimowicz-Rogowska & Winiarska-Mieczan, 2023) . Key Takeaways  This Electric Salt Spoon is a new step forward in food technology. Although this spoon is effective, it is not perfect with many reviews mentioning a noticeable difference in taste compared to normal salt describing it as more “full” but not natural (Leamey, 2025) . There is still room to improve, but the industry of taste-enhancing products is very open, and it is certain that we will see many new innovations and improvements in the future. References Andronico, M. (2025, January 6). This wild electric salt spoon wants to make healthy soups taste better . CNN Underscored.   https://www.cnn.com/cnn-underscored/electronics/kirin-electric-salt-spoon-ces-2025 Coxworth, B. (2025, January 10). Electric spoon adds salty taste – but no actual salt – to low-sodium foods . New Atlas.   https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/kirin-electric-salt-spoon/ Jachimowicz-Rogowska, K., & Winiarska-Mieczan, A. (2023). Initiatives to Reduce the Content of Sodium in Food Products and Meals and Improve the Population’s Health. Nutrients , 15 , 2393.   https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15102393 Leamey, T. (2025, January 9). We Tested an Electric Salt Spoon That Might Help You Stick to Your Low-Sodium Diet . CNET.   https://www.cnet.com/home/kitchen-and-household/we-tested-an-electric-salt-spoon-that-might-help-you-stick-to-your-low-sodium-diet/ Reitman, M. (n.d.). New Study Finds Sixth Taste Bud on Tongue. InsideHook . Retrieved March 26, 2026, from   https://www.insidehook.com/culture/new-study-the-tongue-has-sixth-sense-of-taste-for-water Salty spoon to help limit sodium intake without losing taste . (2024, July 3). Food Technology & Manufacturing.   https://www.foodprocessing.com.au/content/food-design-research/news/salty-spoon-to-help-limit-sodium-intake-without-losing-taste-1339350599 Sodium reduction . (2025, February 7). World Health Organization.   https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sodium-reduction Thumbnail image: (Reitman, n.d.)

Hungry after a long day, you reach for that takeout container of fried rice from where it’s been sitting on your counter for the last four days. But a few hours later, you’re in trouble—at least, your stomach is. The culprit behind your food poisoning is a bacterium called Bacillus cereus  (or B. cereus ) , which was hidden in the grains of rice you’d eagerly consumed. Rice left out at room temperature, like the container you just ate, can become unsafe to eat due to bacterial growth and toxin production. THE CULPRIT B. cereus  is found in soil, dust, and water. From these sources, it can contaminate food, where it may grow and produce toxins. While cooking kills most bacteria, B. cereus  can withstand high temperatures, so its dormant spores may survive cooking and remain in cooked rice. If the rice is left at room temperature, these spores can become active, and the bacterium can multiply rapidly. B. cereus  is also found on other starches like pasta and potatoes, but this kind of food poisoning is more common through eating rice because people often keep it in a rice cooker, where the bacterium can grow easily (Cleveland Clinic, 2026) . Figure 1. Microscopic image of B. cereus (Ecolab, 2016) . SYMPTOMS The growth of B. cereus  produces toxins that induce food poisoning. Different types of toxins result in different symptoms. Complex enterotoxins , which are produced when B. cereus  reproduces in the small intestine after consumption, cause diarrhea, while toxins from B. cereus  growth in the rice cause vomiting (Granum & Lund, 1997) . Symptoms, which generally appear within 6 to 12 hours, may also include cramps and fever. Fortunately, B. cereus  rarely causes life-threatening infections; out of the 63,000 cases of food poisoning it caused in the United States in 2023, only 20 resulted in hospitalizations (Whelan, 2024) . Figure 2. Rice stored safely in the refrigerator (Vu, 2022) . PREVENTION To stay safe, rice should be refrigerated within one to two hours. Avoid refrigerating rice in large chunks, as it may take a while for the center to cool, allowing bacteria to grow. It is recommended to cook rice in small batches to reduce the risk of leftover rice in the rice cooker. Because the toxins caused by B. cereus  are heat-resistant, reheating rice later does not guarantee it is safe to eat. If rice has been left out for a few hours, it should be thrown out (Olsson, 2025) . KEY TAKEAWAYS Leftover rice may seem harmless, but it can pose real health risks if not handled properly. Toxins from the reproduction of B. cereus may result in vomiting and diarrhea. To summarize: when in doubt, throw it out. REFERENCES Bacillus cereus . (n.d.). The Global Leader in Water, Hygiene and Infection Prevention  | Ecolab. Retrieved April 10, 2026, from   https://www.ecolab.com/expertise-and-innovation/resources/microbial-risks/b-cereus Granum, P. E., & Lund, T. (1997). Bacillus cereus  and its food poisoning toxins. FEMS Microbiology Letters , 157 (2), 223–228.   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1097(97)00438-2 Olsson, R. (2025, December 21). Can You Get Food Poisoning From Leftover Rice | Banner Health . Banner Health.   https://www.bannerhealth.com/healthcareblog/teach-me/can-you-get-food-poisoning-from-leftover-rice Vu, H. (2022, March 29). How Long Does Cooked Rice Last in the Fridge? Hungry Huy .   https://www.hungryhuy.com/how-long-does-cooked-rice-last/ What Is Bacillus cereus Food Poisoning?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved April 10, 2026, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23581-bacillus-cereus Whelan, L. (2024, March 6). How Reheated Rice Can Make You Sick . Right as Rain.   https://rightasrain.uwmedicine.org/body/food/leftover-rice-bacillus-cereus-food-poisoning

Cilantro, the green leaves and stems of the Coriandrum sativum plant, is one of the most interesting and divisive ingredients in the culinary world. While some people enjoy its fresh, citrusy flavor, others find it unpleasant with an unmistakable soapy smell. This is not just a matter of preference; according to published data, between 3% and 21% of the population is genetically predisposed to perceive cilantro as soapy (Clinic, 2025). Figure 1. A bowl of cilantro ready to be cut (“Is There a ‘Cilantro Soap Gene’?”, 2025) How the Human Nose Detects Odors The human nose detects odors when airborne molecules enter the nasal cavity, where odorants, or volatile compounds that stimulate olfactory sensations, dissolve in mucus and bind to specialized olfactory receptors, encoded by a large family of Olfactory Receptor (OR) genes. Specific odorants fit into corresponding receptors like a lock and a key. Stimulation of ORs converts the chemical information encoded in odorants into corresponding neuronal action potentials that depolarize olfactory sensory neurons, thereby sending signals to different parts of the brain for processing (Sharma et al., 2018). Figure 2. A schematic illustrating the functions of odor receptors, which are encoded by odor receptor genes (Moon, 2020). The Chemistry Behind Cilantro’s Flavor Cilantro owes its polarizing odor primarily to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) naturally present in the plant, with aldehydes making up the dominant class. Key compounds identified in cilantro include (E)-2-decenal, decanal, (E)-2-dodecenal, and (E)-2-tetradecenal (Kumar et al., 2022). Notably, these same aldehydes are also commonly found in detergents and soaps. While these odorant molecules define the plant’s distinctive aroma, the perception of their odor, whether they smell “fresh” or “soap-like,” depends heavily on the consumer’s genetic makeup. The Role of the OR6A2 Gene in Cilantro Sensitivity To be more specific, sensitivity to these aldehydes has been traced to a mutation in OR6A2, an olfactory receptor gene located on chromosome 11 (Callaway, 2012). In a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 14,604 participants of European ancestry who reported whether cilantro tasted soapy, researchers identified a significant correlation between the perceived “soapy” flavor of cilantro and a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), which refers to the genetic variation that represents a difference in a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome. This SNP (rs7291001) occurs within the OR6A2 gene, which exhibits high binding specificity for several aldehydes, including those present in cilantro. As a result, individuals with this genetic variant are “biologically programmed” to detect the cilantro’s odor as soapy and detergent-like. Nonetheless, it is important to note that this SNP only has a low heritability rate of 0.087, suggesting there may be other factors contributing to this sensory puzzle (Eriksson et al., 2012). Figure 3. A visual map detailing the moment the aldehyde is bound to the odorant receptors until it is perceived by the brain. (Smart, 2023). Key Takeaways Cilantro’s reputation as a herb with a polarizing smell is a perfect example of how genetics, chemistry, and sensory biology collide to shape our unique experience of the world. Studies have revealed that the soap-like odor of this plant is actually linked to an SNP in the OR6A2 olfactory receptor gene, which increases individuals’ sensitivity to certain aldehydes present in the plant. However, given the low heritability rate of this mutation, other factors may also be affecting individuals’ preferences for cilantro. References Callaway, E. (2012). Soapy taste of coriander linked to genetic variants. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.11398 Clinic, C. (2025, August 25). Can a gene cause cilantro to taste like soap? Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/do-you-love-or-hate-cilantro-the-reason-may-surprise-you Eriksson, N., Wu, S., Do, C. B., Kiefer, A. K., Tung, J. Y., Mountain, J. L., Hinds, D. A., & Francke, U. (2012). A genetic variant near olfactory receptor genes influences cilantro preference. arXiv (Cornell University). https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1209.2096 Is There a ‘Cilantro Soap Gene’? (2025, August 25). Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/do-you-love-or-hate-cilantro-the-reason-may-surprise-you Kumar, S., Ahmad, R., Saeed, S., Azeem, M., Mozūraitis, R., Borg-Karlson, A., & Zhu, G. (2022). Chemical composition of fresh leaves headspace aroma and essential oils of four coriander cultivars. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, 820644. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.820644 Moon, D. (2020, October 16). Odor Receptor Genes: Smelling things differently. Genetic Lifehacks. https://www.geneticlifehacks.com/intriguing-genes-differences-in-how-we-smell-things/ Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Aier, I., Semwal, R., Tyagi, P., & Varadwaj, P. (2018). Sense of Smell: Structural, functional, mechanistic advancements and challenges in human olfactory research. Current Neuropharmacology, 17(9), 891–911. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x17666181206095626 Smart, K. (2023, November 8). a Morsel of Science: Why Some People Find Cilantro Soapy | by a Morsel of Science | Medium. Medium. https://medium.com/@a.morsel.of.science/a-morsel-of-science-why-do-some-people-find-cilantro-soapy-ab726801c212 Thumbnail image: Peaky Frames

As intimidating as it sounds, microencapsulation may seem like some crazy aeronautic operation in sci-fi movies, but it is actually an innovative tool used in the food industry. When designing food products for their flavor, nutritional value, and shelf-life, it is important to consider how the chemical composition of a product influences is success in distribution, especially when its ingredients may be susceptible to degradation from the surrounding environment. To prevent reducing the quality of food products, a flavorists and food scientists rely on a technique called microencapsulation that continues to alter the food industry today. What is Microencapsulation? Encapsulation is the general mechanism used to protect active compounds such as flavorings, prebiotics, vitamins, pigments, and antimicrobials from environmental factors like heat, light, or moisture that may degrade these compounds (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . In the same manner microencapsulation is a type of encapsulation at the microscopic level. Figure 1. Example of an active ingredient or compound encapsulated in a microcapsule (“Microencapsulation for Food,” n.d.) . History of Microencapsulation Microencapsulation was first discovered in the late 1930s by American chemist Barry Green who worked for the National Cash Register (NCR). With original intentions completely unrelated to food, he aimed to create a neater alternative to carbon copying paper. He used his knowledge of colloid chemistry and phase coacervation (Watters, 2000)  (aka liquid-liquid phase separation of LLPS), which is a process where a homogenous solution separates into two non-mixable liquids (Kim et al., 2025) , to create extremely tiny capsules wrapped in gelatin. These capsules, placed on the back of the top document, release dye onto a paper copy after a pen writes on the original document (Lednicer, 2010) .  Even, after decades, there are many uses for Green's copy paper. For example, many students have used Green's creation of carbonless copy paper when taking exams. Figure 2. Structure of carbonless copy paper. Note the microcapsulated layer in between the top and middle layers ( “Everything,” 2019) . Later it was discovered that Green’s discovery could be applied to the food production. Because these capsules had shown to provide a reliable container to store dye, they were later repurposed to seal and protect active compounds in food products from the surrounding environment. Additionally, microcapsules allowed for flavorists to control the optimized flavor profiles of different foods, making them widely versatile in culinary and processing industries (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . It is fascinating how microencapsulation’s application in food science originally had no relation to it! Application in the Culinary World Chefs can even use encapsulating techniques in their cooking. A common example is seen in competitive cooking shows such as MasterChef where contestants present appealing dishes to the judges. In a technique called spherification , the contestant drops mixes a liquid with sodium alginate (see Kelp Article) and drops small amounts into a bath of calcium chloride, which forms a thin gel membrane. The membrane formation allows for the contestants to diversify their plating while maintaining the flavor and consistency of the liquid for the judges to taste (Sherri, 2012) .  Figure 3. A MasterChef dish featuring spherification. Watch this video to see the spherification process in action (MasterChef World, 2021) . Recent Advancements Microencapsulation continues to advance the food industry and public health today. Recent developments in microencapsulation include incorporation of polyphenolic extracts , or secondary metabolites of plants with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Brglez Mojzer et al., 2016) , bacteriocins , or proteins and peptides that inhibit bacterial growth (“Bacteriocins”, n.d.) , and natural antimicrobials. Microencapsulating these compounds have shown to inhibit microbial growth in food, rendering microencapsulating particularly useful for food preservation long-term (Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, 2022) . Key Takeaways From carbonless copy paper to MasterChef, microcapsules' applications are versatile. For the food industry specifically, ensuring the proper chemical composition of food products optimizes quality, improves public health, and enhances flavor profiles. In the near future, microcapsules provide promising solutions for increasing food preservation and reducing spoilage from microbial growth. Microencapsulation serves as a prime example that food science necessitates multiple disciplines to generate scalable change. Moving forward, it is essential to consider different perspectives and to collaborate consistently to improve emerging issues within food science, processing, and distribution. References Bacteriocins—An overview . (n.d.). ScienceDirect. Retrieved March 21, 2026, from   https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/bacteriocins Brglez Mojzer, E., Knez Hrnčič, M., Škerget, M., Knez, Ž., & Bren, U. (2016). Polyphenols: Extraction Methods, Antioxidative Action, Bioavailability and Anticarcinogenic Effects. Molecules , 21 (7), 901.   https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21070901 Calderón-Oliver, M., & Ponce-Alquicira, E. (2022). The Role of Microencapsulation in Food Application. Molecules , 27 (5), 1499.   https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051499 Everything You Need to Know about Carbonless Copy Paper. (2019, June 20). L.G. Business Systems .   https://lgbusinesssystems.com.au/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-carbonless-copy-paper/ Kim, D. H., Ki, M.-R., Chung, D. Y., & Pack, S. P. (2025). Biomolecule-Based Coacervation: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives in Biomedical and Biotechnological Fields. Biomolecules , 15 (6), 861.   https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15060861 Lednicer, D. (2010). Microencapsulation. American Heritage’s Invention & Technology , 25 (3).   https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/microencapsulation MasterChef World. (2021, May 1). Molecular Gastronomy Masterclass! | MasterChef New Zealand | MasterChef World  [Video recording].   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28_ih0SrVYs Microencapsulation for Food. (n.d.). Balchem . Retrieved March 21, 2026, from   https://balchem.com/hnh/science-tech/technologies/microencapsulation/ Olufemi, B. (2025, June 11). DIY Molecular Gastronomy: Turning Liquids into Edible Spheres. Quill of Grubs .   https://quillofgrubs.com/diy-molecular-gastronomy-turning-liquids-into-edible-spheres/ Sherri. (2012, May 9). Molecular Gastronomy—Spherification and Caviar Ingredients and Equipment Online . HubPages.   https://discover.hubpages.com/food/Molecular-Gastronomy-Spherification-Ingredients-Equipment-Online Watters, J. L. (2000). Microencapsulation – How it All Began . Gordon College.   https://www.cs.gordon.edu/courses/organic/dol/Microencapsulation/ Thumbnail Image: (Olufemi, 2025)

Known as the ‘second brain’, the gut plays many roles in the body from controlling functions like swallowing to impacting mood. A huge part of it is the gut microbiome. Thought of as a virtual organ because of its importance, the gut microbiome is a complex system of over a 100 trillion living microorganisms. These microscopic organisms can reflect not just the stomach’s health, but the health of the entire body ( Feed Your Gut , 2021) . Figure 1. A diagram of the various physiological functions the gut microbiome contributes to (Afzaal et al., n.d.) . How your gut works Every person has a unique gut microbiome populated with species of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. This unique makeup is introduced during birth and infancy, then later develops and evolves as one’s diet changes over time. Most of the organisms in the gut have a symbiotic relationship with the body: the body provides shelter and food, while they complete services that the body can’t on its own. For example, the good bugs help break down certain complex carbohydrates and dietary fibers as well as various vitamins including B1, B9, B12, and K. Beneficial microorganisms also keep harmful bugs in check, produce neurotransmitters like serotonin which regulate mood, and support immune system health ( What Is Your Gut Microbiome? , n.d.) . A balance of these various  microbes is key for overall health—something that can be greatly improved through a  balanced diet.  Figure 2. Foods high in fiber that gut microbes can use to support gut function (Younkin, 2025) . Importance of a balanced diet Diet determines the exact makeup of the gut microbiome. Like all living organisms, the  microbes in the gut thrive in certain conditions. The natural acidity of the gut is the right  balance: it isn’t so acidic that all the good microorganisms die off, but it is acidic enough to kill off most bad microorganisms. Any unhealthy diet, especially the Western diet high in processed foods, red meat, and fat, can push the gut away from ideal conditions. Specific foods can also help introduce the right bacteria to the gut. Probiotics, for example, are one of the many ‘good bugs’ that improve digestion and kill off harmful bacteria. They are found in all fermented foods including yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi (Oliveira, 2025) . Just eating some of these ‘gut friendly’ foods occasionally won’t help—these must be consistently integrated into a person’s diet.  Key Takeaways It is important to keep the gut microbiome healthy as it influences almost every system in the body. The best way to support a healthy gut is by paying attention to the foods you eat and aiming for balance and variety in your diet. By including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and  fermented foods, you create the best environment for the good microbes to thrive. Taking care of your gut isn’t just about digestion, but it's a key part of long-term health, increased immunity, and even a better mood.  References Feed your gut . (2021, April 1). Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/feed-your-gut Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shah, Y. A., Hussain, M., Rabail, R., Socol, C. T., Hassoun, A., Pateiro, M., Lorenzo, J. M., Rusu, A. V., & Aadil, R. M. (n.d.). Frontiers | Human gut microbiota in health and disease: Unveiling the relationship . Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.999001/full What Is Your Gut Microbiome?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/25201-gut-microbiome Oliveira, N. (2025, March 4). Probiotics for Gut Health. The Nutrition Source .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/probiotics/ Younkin, L. (2025, March 21). Best Foods to Eat for Gut Health . EatingWell.   https://www.eatingwell.com/article/2059033/best-and-worst-foods-to-eat-for-gut-health/ Thumbnail Image: (Younkin, 2025)

What is Kelp? Kelp is a type of large, brown seaweed that grows in abundance in cool, coastal waters. Although kelp undergoes photosynthesis to produce energy, it is not to be mistaken for a plant. Instead, it is considered a marine algae. As an algae, kelp provides habitat, food, and shelter to countless biodiverse ecosystems in the oceanic biosphere. Environmentally, they play a crucial role in carbon sequestration,  which is the process of capturing atmospheric carbon and storing it naturally, which significantly reduces the effects of climate change. Structurally, they provide support to coastlines, protect nearby land from erosion, and improve water quality (Hall, 2024) . Figure 1. Digit kelp growing in ocean waters of Nova Scotia ( New National Blueprint , 2025) . Luckily, kelp grows incredibly fast, some species growing about 1.5-2 feet per day (“Giant Kelp”, 2018) . This fast growth rate comes in handy for reducing ocean acidification , which occurs when too much carbon dioxide is dissolved in sea water. Since faster growth can sequester more carbon dioxide, which can acidify the water, kelp is often a tool used to restore pH levels to a more typical range. Kelp also has a unique ability to absorb excess nitrogen and phosphorus, which can prevent rapid population growth of other algae, more formally known as algal blooms (Brisbin, 2023) . Figure 2. Example of what algal blooms look like (Geist, 2018) . Kelp’s Production of Alginate and its Applications Beyond the ocean, kelp also has various applications in multiple industries. Within the cell walls of algae lies a carbohydrate called alginate , which can be found in countless products ranging from ice cream, toothpaste, paper, lotion, and much more. Alginate has a useful property where it can form a gel-like structure without temperature changes, unlike agar and gelatin, making it increasingly more sought out in manufacturing (Abka-khajouei et al., 2022) . Due to its chemical structure, it is also considered a thickening, stabilizing, and emulsifying agent, rendering it particularly useful for culinary (i.e. ice cream and salad dressing), pharmaceutical, and cosmetic goods (i.e. face masks, shampoo, and conditioner). Furthermore, alginate is also bio-compatible, meaning its biodegradability and nontoxicity make it a great option for medical applications like wound healing and drug encapsulation (Gheorghita Puscaselu et al., 2020) . Other benefits to using alginate in manufacturing is its cost-effectiveness and renewability as a resource since kelp is relatively abundant. Figure 3. Dental impressions are an example of a product that is commonly made using alginate, giving it its thick texture (Weichenthal, 2023) . Kelp as an Emerging as a Ne w Cro p Its benefits can be seen both nutritionally and agriculturally. Kelp is considered a superfood, containing nutrients such as iodine, vitamins A, K, and B12, calcium, iron, magnesium, and antioxidants, with proven benefits to thyroid function, immune health, and digestive wellness ( Home , n.d.) .  To cultivate plants, kelp meal can also be used as fertilizer or to quicken composting processes. Kelp serves as a biostimulant , meaning it naturally speeds up nutrient absorption and tolerance to abiotic stress; this quality grants it the ability to fertilize crops or stimulate microbial activity during composting (Hageman, 2025) . Given all of these benefits, it is no wonder that kelp is emerging as a new crop. Figure 4. The organization GreenWave, harvests Kelp to be manufactured into fertilizer for crops ( Seaweed-Powered Agriculture , n.d.) . Kelp is not just useful in its components, but in its entirety as well, and its value as a crop is currently growing rapidly. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, seaweed farming is one of the fastest growing sectors in aquaculture, with a current value of 6 billion dollars ( Kelp Farming , 2025) . In Alaska specifically, kelp is inventing an entire new industry of farming (Stopha, n.d.) . Kelp has also made leaps in aquaculture, and is a leading example in regenerative farming. To restore ecosystems, farmers have been using kelp to stabilize populations of oysters, clams, and mussels. This 3D ocean farming model, as it is called by its founding organization GreenWave, creates a commensal environment where kelp assist shellfish growth through carbon sequestration and reducing algal booms while shellfish filtering out pollutants, improving water quality for the kelp to grow in (Inletkeeper, 2020) . Environmental Factors to Consider in the Kelp Industry Kelp is gaining popularity, and with more people knowledgeable about its rapidly growing market, it is important to consider the drawbacks of harvesting large amounts of kelp, specifically its environmental impact. Harvesting kelp has plenty of benefits which have led to new era ocean regenerative agriculture, utilizing its abundance to manufacture products, and using its unique properties to fertilize crops. However, harvesting should still be done moderately and cautiously. Industrial harvesting , or harvesting kelp in large quantities, can disrupt marine habitats, encourage land erosion, and reduce overall biodiversity within ecosystems. And, since kelp is primary producer, an essential resource for many living organisms within an oceanic region, reducing kelp can deplete sea otter, fish, and octopus populations (Araujo et al., 2013) . While gaining awareness of how the kelp industry can benefit the environment and contribute to widespread nutrition, it is important to consider the drawbacks of overharvesting, a reminder that even renewable resources should never be exploited. Key Takeaways Learning about the kelp industry, the products it's responsible for, and environmental benefits is crucial to realizing its impact in the food science and production world. If kelp is just one example of how we can use natural resources sustainably and innovatively for numerous economic, agricultural, and ecological applications, what other opportunities are there? Being conscious of both the benefits and drawbacks is necessary when considering future plans for harvesting kelp, and the same goes for any industry using natural resources. Kelp demonstrates that it's not primarily about what resources we have, but how we use them responsibly, setting the tone for a brighter, more sustainable world. References Abka-khajouei, R., Tounsi, L., Shahabi, N., Patel, A. K., Abdelkafi, S., & Michaud, P. (2022). Structures, Properties and Applications of Alginates. Marine Drugs , 20 (6), 364.   https://doi.org/10.3390/md20060364 Araujo, R. M., Bartsch, I., Bekkby, T., Erzini, K., & Sousa-Pinto, I. (2013). What is the impact of kelp forest density and/or area on fisheries? Environmental Evidence , 2 (1), 15.   https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-15 Brisbin, M. (2023, September 7). How Fast Does Kelp Grow?  How Fast Does Kelp Grow?   https://www.veritree.com/post/how-fast-does-kelp-grow Geist, M. E. (2018, May 23). A Growing Epidemic of Toxic Algal Blooms—Great Lakes Now . Great Lakes Now.   https://www.greatlakesnow.org/2018/05/23/a-growing-epidemic-of-toxic-algal-blooms/ Gheorghita Puscaselu, R., Lobiuc, A., Dimian, M., & Covasa, M. (2020). Alginate: From Food Industry to Biomedical Applications and Management of Metabolic Disorders. Polymers , 12 (10), 2417.   https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102417 Giant kelp switches diet when key nutrient becomes scarce. (2018, June 7). [U.S. National Science Foundation].   https://www.nsf.gov/news/giant-kelp-switches-diet-when-key-nutrient-becomes Hageman, B. (2025, October 9). Kelp Meal Fertilizer: A Boost for Healthy Plant Growth . Grow Organic.   https://www.groworganic.com/blogs/articles/kelp-meal-a-sustainable-and-nutritious-way-to-fertilize-your-garden Hall, D. (2024, July). Kelp and Kelp Forests | Smithsonian Ocean . Kelp and Kelp Forests.   https://ocean.si.edu/kelp-and-kelp-forests Home . (n.d.). Atlantic Sea Farms. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://atlanticseafarms.com/ Inletkeeper, C. (2020, December 8). GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services - Inletkeeper. GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services .   https://inletkeeper.org/regenerative-ocean-farming/ Kelp Farming: Ocean Restoration That Pays Coastal Towns . (2025, October 11). Science Array.   https://environment.sciencearray.com/kelp-forests-ocean-restoration-coastal-economy Seaweed-Powered Agriculture: Biostimulants Bridge Land and Sea . (n.d.). GreenWave. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/agrisea-biostimulant Stopha, M. (n.d.). Alaska Kelp Farming, Alaska Department of Fish and Game . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=949 Weichenthal, C. (2023, January 25). What is alginate? | maxill . Maxill Dental.   https://www.maxill.com/us/blog/post/what-is-alginate-and-how-is-it-used Thumbnail image: ( New National Blueprint , 2025)

Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is indigestible. Unlike other carbohydrates, which are broken down into glucose, fiber passes through the body mostly intact (The Nutrition Source, 2022) . But if we can’t break down fiber, then what does it do? Furthermore, if our own digestive system cannot metabolize fiber, then what does? Types of Fiber There are two different types of fiber, each with its own purpose in the body. Soluble fiber dissolves in water and becomes a gel, slowing digestion. Foods such as oatmeal, chia seeds, nuts, and lentils are rich in soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, moves food throughout the digestive system. It adds bulk to the stool, which causes stool to pass more quickly and helps prevent constipation. Insoluble fiber is found in foods such as wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains (“Soluable”, 2024) . Figure 1. Various foods that are rich in fiber (“Fiber Rich”, 2023) . How Fiber Interacts with the Body In the stomach, soluble fiber absorbs water and swells, creating a feeling of fullness. As it moves through the small intestine, fiber binds to cholesterol particles, preventing their absorption and naturally lowering blood cholesterol levels. In the large intestine, fiber becomes food for beneficial gut bacteria ( UCLA Health, 2025) . These microorganisms ferment certain types of fiber, producing short-chain fatty acids. This fermentation process also supports a healthy gut microbiome, which is important for digestive and immune function (Mann et al., 2024) . Other Health Benefits Beyond improving digestive processes, fiber can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Insoluble fiber helps lower glucose levels and blood cholesterol, which are significant risk factors for cardiovascular disease. By promoting satiety and reducing food intake, fiber also aids in weight control, helping to lower the risk of heart disease associated with being overweight (Lewine, 2024) . Fiber also reduces the risk of colorectal cancer. Short-chain fatty acids, produced through the fermentation of fiber, sustain colon cells and help maintain their healthy function. The fermentation of fiber also promotes beneficial bacterial growth while inhibiting harmful bacteria that can contribute to cancer development (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Figure 2. Schematic showing the production of various short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) by the gut microbiome (Miya et al., 2023) . Since fiber slows down digestion, it can prevent blood glucose surges after eating and reduce the need for insulin spikes for individuals with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, fiber's role in weight management indirectly supports diabetes control because maintaining a healthy weight is important for insulin sensitivity and blood sugar regulation (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Key Takeaways A fiber-rich diet is associated with many health benefits, such as healthy bowel function and a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. By understanding how fiber works in the body, people can make informed dietary choices that support their long-term health. References Fiber. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/carbohydrates/fiber/ Functional Nutritionist NYC - Nutrition Expert Long Island. (n.d.). Philip Rabito, MD . Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://www.philiprabitomd.com/nutrition-doctor/ Kaczmarczyk, M. M., Miller, M. J., & Freund, G. G. (2012). The health benefits of dietary fiber: Beyond the usual suspects of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and colon cancer. Metabolism , 61 (8), 1058–1066.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2012.01.017 Lewine, H. E. (2024, February 5). Eat more fiber-rich foods to foster heart health . Harvard Health Publishing.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/eat-more-fiber-rich-foods-to-foster-heart-health Mann, E. R., Lam, Y. K., & Uhlig, H. H. (2024). Short-chain fatty acids: Linking diet, the microbiome and immunity. Nature Reviews Immunology , 24 (8), 577–595.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01014-8 Miya, T., Marima, R., Damane, B., Ledet, E., & Dlamini, Z. (2023). Dissecting Microbiome-Derived SCFAs in Prostate Cancer: Analyzing Gut Microbiota, Racial Disparities, and Epigenetic Mechanisms. Cancers , 15 , 4086.   https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15164086 Soluble vs. insoluble fiber: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia . (n.d.). National Library of Medicine. Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002136.htm uclahealth. (2023, April 23). Soluble fiber: What it is and why you need it | UCLA Health . UCLA Health.   https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/soluble-fiber-what-it-and-why-you-need-it Thumbnail image: UCSF Magazine

MSG (monosodium glutamate) is the sodium salt of one of the most commonly occurring amino acids, glutamic acid . This non-essential amino acid is naturally synthesized in the human body and in many high-protein foods, tomatoes, cheese, and mushrooms, creating the umami flavor described as savory and meaty (Glutamate, 2022) .  Although glutamic acid is abundant and safe, its counterpart MSG, an isolated and concentrated form, has gained a controversial reputation after a series of reactions in the American public during the 1960’s known as the Chinese Restaurant Syndrome . To understand more about its controversy, we must first, ask what is MSG? How is it different from natural glutamic acid? And why do so many love its signature flavor? Figure 1. Ch emical structures of glutamic acid, monosodium glutamate, and glutamate (Simpson, 2023) .  Mushroom's Natural Production of Glutamic Acid vs. MSG (Production and Flavor): To understand the differences between natural glutamic acid and MSG, it is important to understand their production processes. Glutamic acid is an amino acid created by the breakdown of a protein. This process can be seen in mushrooms, where glutamic acid is a natural byproduct of their protein metabolism. Additionally, mushrooms’ umami flavor can be further enhanced through fermentation , which breaks down even more proteins to increase the amount of glutamic acid. Similarly, artificially produced MSG is created through the fermentation of various foods like starch, sugar beets, sugarcane, or molasses through the bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum . The free glutamic acid is then separated, extracted, and then neutralized using sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to create its salt form. While both sources yield glutamic acid, the key to MSG’s intense umami flavor lies in how it delivers free glutamate in its most readily available form (Berg, 2019) . What Gives MSG its flavor?: Umami flavor is received through umami receptors on the tongue. The glutamate binds to these receptors which are distributed throughout the tongue. When MSG is consumed, it dissociates into sodium and glutamate in the mouth. The free glutamate, which is identical in structure to that found naturally in mushrooms and cheese, activates the umami receptors, triggering a distinct savory feeling. Unlike glutamic acid still bound within proteins – how it is normally found in food – which must be broken down during digestion, MSG delivers glutamate in its active form (Vandenbeuch & Kinnaman, 2016) .  This instant delivery is what gives MSG its signature intensity and why it is such a powerful flavor enhancer.  Figure 2. Flavor receptors in the tongue (Silberner, 2024) . Key Takeaways MSG, the most concentrated form of umami flavor, is unique because it instantly delivers glutamate to the tongue’s receptors. MSG is a favorite in the food industry and is used in a variety of foods around the world. Still, the stigma around it has led to bans and limitations of its use around the world. While some studies, individuals, and media claim it has adverse effects on health, most studies have come to the conclusion that current research is not adequate to come to a verdict about its health properties, and that more detailed research is needed (Zanfirescu et. al, 2019) . While its artificial production and incorporation into manufactured goods is contested, its natural production from everyday foods like mushrooms and cheese make its abundance a true wonder of food science. References Dr. Eric Berg DC. (2019, October 20). MSG vs Glutamate: What’s the Difference?  [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKTqXqD6dZ4 Freeman, M. (2006). Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: A literature review. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners , 18 (10), 482–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x Glutamate: What It Is & Function . (2022, April 25). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22839-glutamate Mantzioris, E. (2024, September 9). MSG is back. Is the idea it’s bad for us just a myth or food science?  The Conversation. https://doi.org/10.64628/AA.akft7ykkd Silberner, J. (2024, May 29). The Textbooks Were Wrong About How Your Tongue Works—The New York Times . The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/29/science/taste-buds-tongue-map.html Simpson, M. (2023, July 16). MSG — one of the largest food myths being pushed. Skeptical Raptor . https://www.skepticalraptor.com/skepticalraptorblog.php/msg-myth-one-of-the-most-persistent-in-the-pseudoscience-of-food/ Vandenbeuch, A., & Kinnamon, S. C. (2016). Glutamate: Tastant and Neuromodulator in Taste Buds123. Advances in Nutrition , 7 (4), 823S-827S. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.011304 Zanfirescu, A., Ungurianu, A., Tsatsakis, A. M., Nițulescu, G. M., Kouretas, D., Veskoukis, A., Tsoukalas, D., Engin, A. B., Aschner, M., & Margină, D. (2019). A review of the alleged health hazards of monosodium glutamate. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 18 (4), 1111–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12448 Thumbnail image: (Mantzioris, 2024)

Caffeine is one of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances in the world, valued for its stimulating effects on the brain and body. To understand how caffeine works, it is necessary to examine its biological mechanisms and the genetic factors that influence caffeine sensitivity. What is Caffeine? Caffeine is a naturally occurring central nervous system stimulant in the methylxanthine class, a group of drugs with stimulatory and bronchodilatory (or the ability to open up airways and lungs) effects. These drugs are often used to treat patients with conditions restricting airways, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and apnea (Gottwalt & Tadi, 2023) . For this reason, caffeine can be used to stimulate breathing in premature infants and prevent apnea , or pauses in breathing (Oñatibia-Astibia et al., 2016) . Though caffeine is primarily sourced from coffee beans, it is also found in certain varieties of tea and cacao beans. It is also used as an additive in soda and energy drinks. Prescription or over-the-counter drugs such as cold, allergy, and pain medications may also contain caffeine. Many weight-loss supplements also have caffeine (Petre, 2023) . Figure 1. Common sources of caffeine, with the amount of caffeine per serving (Lane, 2020) . How Caffeine Works in the Body Once caffeine is consumed, it gets absorbed by the gut which then flows into the bloodstream. Because caffeine is both water-soluble and fat-soluble, it travels easily in blood plasma and can cross the fatty membranes of the blood-brain barrier , a highly selective network of semi-permeable membranes that protects the central nervous system. After entering the brain, caffeine binds to adenosine receptors , blocking adenosine from attaching to them instead (Evans et al., 2024)  (Fig 2). Adenosine is a compound that normally promotes sleepiness and relaxation by slowing down neural activity. By preventing this process, caffeine increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and can improve concentration, reaction time, and even mood in the short term. Figure 2. Caffeine attaching to adenosine receptors and blocking adenosine (Jaeger, 2021) . Once in the body, caffeine is primarily broken down in the liver by an enzyme called CYP1A2 . This enzyme is responsible for metabolizing more than 90% of the caffeine consumed. Its activity helps determine how long caffeine stays in the body and how strong its effects are. The efficiency of CYP1A2 can influence everything from the intensity of stimulation to how soon someone may feel the need for another cup of coffee (Mahdavi et al., 2023) . The Genetics of Caffeine Sensitivity The CYP1A2 enzyme is responsible for the differences in how people respond to caffeine. Fast metabolizers break down caffeine quickly, meaning its effects wear off sooner. However, slow metabolizers process caffeine more slowly, leading to prolonged effects and a higher chance of side effects such as insomnia. Another important gene, ADORA2A, affects how the brain responds to caffeine by influencing the sensitivity of adenosine receptors. Genetic testing can reveal whether you have variants in these genes that impact your caffeine tolerance (Mégane Erblang et al., 2019) . Other factors like body weight, age, sex, and certain medications also influence how your body handles caffeine. Habitual caffeine intake can lead to tolerance, reducing its noticeable effects over time. Additionally, people with anxiety disorders or heart conditions may experience stronger negative reactions and are often advised to limit their caffeine intake (Liu et al., 2024) . Key Takeaways While caffeine offers benefits like increased alertness and improved focus, its effects can vary greatly from person to person. Factors such as genetics, enzyme activity, habitual use, and underlying health conditions all influence how caffeine is processed and tolerated. By understanding these variables, individuals can make more informed choices about their caffeine intake. References Erblang, M., Drogou, C., Gomez-Merino, D., Metlaine, A., Boland, A., Deleuze, J. F., Thomas, C., Sauvet, F., & Chennaoui, M. (2019). The Impact of Genetic Variations in ADORA2A in the Association between Caffeine Consumption and Sleep. Genes, 10(12), 1021. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10121021 Evans, J., Richards, J. R., & Battisti, A. S. (2025). Caffeine. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519490/ Gottwalt, B., & Tadi, P. (2025). Methylxanthines. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559165/ Jaeger, K. (2021, April 7). I Tried a Coffee Nap. Health in a Hurry. https://blogs.uww.edu/healthinahurry/2021/04/07/i-tried-a-coffee-nap/ Lane, A. (2020, February 12). Foods with Caffeine. Healthful Lane Nutrition. https://healthfullane.com/2020/02/12/foods-with-caffeine/ Liu, C., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Hu, Z., Tang, J., Xue, J., & Lu, W. (2024). Caffeine intake and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1270246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270246 Oñatibia-Astibia, A., Martínez-Pinilla, E., & Franco, R. (2016). The potential of methylxanthine-based therapies in pediatric respiratory tract diseases. Respiratory Medicine, 112, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2016.01.022 Petre, A. (2020, June 3). What Is Caffeine, and Is It Good or Bad for Health? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/what-is-caffeine