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It is a common misconception that height is purely genetic. Parents’ height genes only determine 80% of their children’s height; the other 20% comes from environmental factors such as sleep, nutrition, and activity levels. This is why most children end up growing within 3 inches of the mid-parental height (the average of their parents’ heights) ("The Genetics of Height", 2022) .  Yet, over the past century, the average height of both men and women has been increasing. According to CBS, from 1896 to 1996, the average U.S. male height increased from 5 foot 6 inches to 5 foot 8 inches (Mitchell, 2025) . This increase in height from generation to generation is mainly due to increasingly better nutrition worldwide. So, food plays some role in determining height, and this article will further explore this relationship. A normal curve showing the general height distribution of the human population (Bicknell et al., 2025) How do people grow Taller in the first place? Growing taller is simply the lengthening of bones. On all the body’s long bones (femur, humerus, metacarpals, etc.) there are growth plates; bands of cartilage near the ends of the bones. These plates contain chondrocytes (cartilage cells), that first multiply, enlarge, then finally die off and get replaced by bone (proliferation, hypertrophy, then ossification). This process happens rapidly during infancy, happens at a slower rate during childhood, increases again during puberty, and finally declines in adulthood, eventually stopping completely. (Jee & Baron, 2017)  What causes the growth plates to activate at these rates is the amount of growth hormone, or somatotropin . Somatotropin is created in the pituitary gland and is released in bursts during intense exercise and deep sleep. Finally, the most important building blocks of bone are vitamin D and calcium, which work together to form the bone during a process called ossification , or bone tissue formation. Diet plays a role in this process by providing these necessary nutrients – something explored more in detail below (Branch, 2023) . A diagram of proliferation, hypertrophy, and ossification (Hasan et al., 2024) . What foods can contribute to height? Again, the body needs Vitamin D and Calcium to build the bone. It also needs enough calories to provide energy for all of the processes related to growth. As long as a diet has enough of all three of these, the specific food won’t matter. Still, some foods that are rich in all three of these are fish, egg yolk, and milk. A good rule of thumb is that most seafood has high levels of vitamin D, while most dairy products have high levels of calcium. (Shepard, 2024) .  When planning a diet, it is important to remember not to intake too much of any of these nutrients. An excess of any of these can be dangerous, and only up to a certain amount will support growth. Key Takeaways A person’s maximum possible height is determined by genetics, but to reach that height requires good sleep, physical activity, and most importantly a balanced and nutritious diet. But these good habits can’t change height once the growth plates have closed; on average growth plates close around 15 years old for girls and 17 years old for boys  ("When does", 2024) . Most people can’t naturally grow taller after these ages. Still, it is important to learn about how to support proper growth as current or potential parents – to ensure the next generation has the best possible conditions to reach their full growth potential through proper nutrition, sleep, and healthy lifestyle habits during their growth years. References Bicknell, L. S., Hirschhorn, J. N., & Savarirayan, R. (2025). The genetic basis of human height. Nature Reviews Genetics , 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-025-00834-1 Branch, N. S. C. and O. (2023, May 5). Calcium and Vitamin D: Important for Bone Health . National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases; NIAMS. https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/calcium-and-vitamin-d-important-bone-health Hasan, S., Naseer, S., Zamzam, M., Mohilldean, H., Van Wagoner, C., Hasan, A., Saleh, E. S., Uhley, V., & Kamel-ElSayed, S. (2024). Nutrient and Hormonal Effects on Long Bone Growth in Healthy and Obese Children: A Literature Review. Children , 11 (7), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11070817 Jee, Y. H., & Baron, J. (2016, March 26). The Biology of Stature—PMC . NIH. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4884478/ Mitchell, K. (2025, April 3). Are humans getting taller? Here’s what the data says. - CBS Minnesota . CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/why-people-are-getting-taller/   Shepard, S. (2024, May 21). Calcium and Vitamin D: Top Food Sources . WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/calcium-vitamin-d-foods The genetics of height . (2022, October 26). Medicover Genetics. https://medicover-genetics.com/the-genetics-of-height/ When does growth cartilage close?  (2024, December 26). Vinmec International Hospital. https://www.vinmec.com/eng/blog/when-does-the-growth-plate-close-en

How did the calorie become the standard unit to measure the energy of food? Originally used by scientists, it made its way onto nutritional labels to allow customers to understand the foods they consumed. However, calories alone cannot represent the full intricacies of how the body processes energy from food. The Origin of the Calorie A calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C at standard atmospheric pressure. Because the amount of energy required depends on the temperature of the water, it was necessary to specify the 15° calorie: the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C ("Calorie " , n.d.) . The calories listed on nutritional labels are actually kilocalories, each equal to 1000 scientific calories. This reason is why they are typically labeled as “kcal”; in the United States and Canada, the term “calorie” often refers to a kilocalorie and is abbreviated as “Cal” (Van De Walle, 2024) . Originally, a calorimeter was used to measure the calorie content of a food. With its water content evaporated, food would be placed in a container surrounded by water. The container would then be sealed, and the food ignited by piping in oxygen. Afterwards, the calorie content would be calculated by the rise in temperature of the surrounding water (Schwarcz, 2018) . Figure 1. A modern calorimeter ("Electric Calorimeter", n.d.) . How Calories are Counted Now The calorimeter is rarely used to measure calories today. In fact, most calorie values are estimated from the Atwater system, which prescribes calorie amounts for different types of nutrients. Specifically, there are 4 calories per gram of protein, 4 calories per gram of carbohydrate, 9 calories per gram of fat, and 7 calories per gram of alcohol. These values were determined by averaging many trials of burning. Since carbohydrates contain some fiber, which is undigested, the fiber is subtracted from the total carbohydrate content to calculate the calories. (Painter, 2006) Figure 2. Nutrition label of chicken breast ("Boneless", 2025) . Inaccuracies in CaloriE Counting The Atwater system does not account for many processes that affect the total calorie count of a food. Some of these factors include the cooking method, processing, and digestibility of the food. In a study at Harvard University, researchers found that mice gained more weight when fed cooked foods than raw foods, suggesting that the mice processed more calories from the cooked foods. The heat from cooking begins to break down proteins, improving the digestibility of food. It also kills bacteria, reducing the energy the immune system needs to use to fight against any pathogens (Dunn, 2013) . Different individuals may also process the same amount of calories in different ways based on their gut microbiome. Studies have shown that overweight individuals have different types of organisms in their gut than those who are naturally thin; in fact, transferring the microbiota of lean people to those who are overweight may result in weight changes ("Stop Counting", 2020) . Additionally, researchers in the 1900s discovered that some Russian populations had longer large intestines than some Polish populations, meaning that a Russian person could get more energy than a Polish person from the same amount of calories (Dunn, 2013) . These many biological differences mean that calorie counting is unique to every individual. Figure 3. The gut microbiome (Bahorsky, 2022) Key Takeaways Though nutrition labels provide a convenient estimate, they do not reflect the complex process of digestion or individual biological differences. Cooking, gut microbiomes, and even differences in anatomy can change how an individual absorbs food. By understanding the method of calorie counting and its flaws, people may approach their own health and nutrition with more awareness. References Bahorsky, R. (2022, December 13). Discovery Will Aid Gut-Microbiome Research Efforts . College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia. https://as.virginia.edu/discovery-will-aid-gut-microbiome-research-efforts Boneless, Skinless Chicken Breasts, 4.7-6.1 lb Tray . (n.d.). Walmart. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.walmart.com/ip/Boneless-Skinless-Chicken-Breasts-4-7-6-1-lb-Tray/27935840 Calorie . (n.d.). Britannica. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.britannica.com/science/calorie Dunn, R. (2013, September 1). Science Reveals Why Calorie Counts Are All Wrong . Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-reveals-why-calorie-counts-are-all-wrong/ Electric Calorimeter . (n.d.). Thomas Scientific. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.thomassci.com/p/electric-calorimeter Painter, J. (2006, July 31). How Do Food Manufacturers Calculate the Calorie Count of Packaged Foods?  Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-food-manufacturers/ Schwarcz, J. (2018, September 6). How is the caloric value of food determined?  | Office for Science and Society—McGill University . McGill. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/nutrition/how-caloric-value-food-determined Stop counting calories . (2020, October 1). Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/stop-counting-calories Van De Walle, G. (2024, October 29). What’s the Difference Between Kcal and Calories?  Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/kcal-vs-calories Thumbnail: photographed by Diana Polekhina

In school, most students are told that there are 5 distinct senses: sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. Although these senses are distinct, this generalization does not take into consideration that in order to perceive the world fully, multiple senses must combined at once. Perceiving taste is just one example. Flavor is most widely known to be perceived through tastebuds; however, smell actually contributes to 75-95% of the full sensation of taste ( Wood, 2024 ) . The Basics of Tastebuds There are five basic sensations that taste papillae (larger complexes that contain taste buds and detect taste) can pick up: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and savory (AKA umami). Humans typically sense these basic tastes after saliva breaks down food into detectable compounds that bind to the taste papillae receptors on our tongue ( "In Brief", 2023 ) . These receptors then travel up nerves to our brain, which processes the taste stimulus. The problem, however, is that taste papillae are only capable of communicating to the brain these five basic tastes. The true nuance and distinction of different flavors is actually sensed by olfactory receptors in the nose ( Rohland 2017 ) . ( "In Brief", 2023 ) The Role of Smell in Flavor Perception The nose, being far more detailed in detecting and distinguishing between thousands of different odors, is the true hub of flavor detection. After food is broken down through chewing and chemical breakdown, volatile compounds, or odor compounds from the food, can travel up the rear junction of the mouth and nose ( Rohland, 2017 ) . These odor molecules are typically assisted up from the mouth to the nose during brief exhalations while eating. This concept is called retronasal olfaction ( Ni et al., 2015 ) . Examples of foods where smell highly amplifies flavor are chocolate and coffee ( Wood, 2024 ) . Link Why Both Taste and Smell? If our taste papillae evolved to detect taste, why is still such a strong contributor to taste? Taste and smell working in tandem actually results from evolutionary strategies for survival. To avoid consuming poisonous substances, smell helps our body detect potentially harmful foods. Recently, there has also been studies shown that smell helps regulate digestion. Olfactory receptors in addition to sensing different odors, also stimulates gastric juices, preparing our body to start digestion (Giduck et al., 1987 as cited in Wood, 2024 ). Smell also helps us distinguish calorie and nutrient rich foods from non-rich foods, which is beneficial in times of survival ( Wood, 2024 ) . ( Fine & Riera, 2019 ) Interactive: Try Testing Yourself To test just how much smell affects your perception of taste, quickly eat something but plug your nose when you chew. Notice how you can tell between the five different basic tastes (salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and savory) but not exactly pinpoint the full flavor? This is due to you limiting the olfactory signal to the brain! So cool! Key Takeaways Flavor is multifaceted, and it is extremely intriguing to see that our sense of smell is a huge component of taste. By understanding retronasal olfaction and the nuance behind different flavors, the you can enhance your eating experience and be more mindful about the wonderful world of flavors! References Fine, L. G., & Riera, C. E. (2019). Sense of Smell as the Central Driver of Pavlovian Appetite Behavior in Mammals. Frontiers in Physiology , 10 , 1151. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01151 Giduck, S.A., Threatte, R.M. and Kare, M.R., 1987. Cephalic reflexes: their role in digestion and possible roles in absorption and metabolism. The Journal of nutrition, 117(7), pp.1191-1196 In brief: How does our sense of taste work? (2023). In InformedHealth.org [Internet] . Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ Ni, R., Michalski, M. H., Brown, E., & Shepherd, G. M. (2015, November 9). Optimal directional volatile transport in retronasal olfaction | PNAS . https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1511495112 Rohland, L. (2017). Taste bud . https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/taste-bud Wood, C. (2024, November 12). How does smell affect the way we experience food?   https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/how-does-smell-affect-the-way-we-experience-food

What’s in Your Pre-Workout? Pre-workouts are a potent mix of supplements that boost performance before exercise. Most contain a blend of caffeine, amino acids, and other performance enhancers. Beta-alanine is among the most common ingredients in most major brands’ mixes. What is Beta-alanine and how does it help? Beta-alanine is an amino acid commonly found in meat like beef and pork ( CarnoSyn, 2024 ) . When consumed through supplements - higher doses than the trace amounts found in meat - beta-alanine's effect intensify significantly. Beta-alanine’s main job is to help muscles fight off strain and fatigue. Increasing the carnosine levels, which are the combination of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine in your body, extends how long muscles can perform under pressure by reducing lactic acid buildup during exercise ( Trexler et al., JISSN , 2015 ) . High-intensity exercises like sprinting and lifting are where beta-alanine benefits athletes the most. A 2017 study found that supplements, including beta-alanine, can significantly affect an exercise with shorter intervals compared to one with longer or intermittent intervals (Saunders et al., Br J Sports Med , 2017). Link Caution! One common side effect of taking beta-alanine is paresthesia, the tingling sensation you feel under your skin. Paresthesia might feel weird for athletes when working out, but it is entirely harmless ( Preiato, 2025 ) . Some might find it energizing, while others may find it distracting. The dosing and timing can help manage this - a smaller serving diluted with more water can reduce paresthesia while maintaining the intended effect. Still, experts have warned that not all pre-workouts are created equal. Some products are loaded with questionable amounts of stimulants, sugar, or even unregulated additives. As Harvard Health Publishing warns, many supplements bypass FDA approval and may potentially harm users ( Harvard Health Publishing, 2018 ). Link : taking pre-workout Key Takeaways Beta-alanine is a beneficial amino acid that is in most pre-workout products. There should be great care for the dosage and the specifics of what goes into your body, but when used right, beta-alanine can boost athletic performances to the next level. Link : visualization of when you take pre References CarnoSyn. (2024, January 24). What are top food sources for beta-alanine?   https://www.carnosyn.com/what-is-the-best-food-source-for-obtaining-beta-alanine/ Harvard Health Publishing. (2018, July 18). The hidden dangers of protein powders .   https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-hidden-dangers-of-protein-powders Preiato, D. (2025, May 8). 5 side effects of pre-workout supplements . Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/pre-workout-side-effects Saunders, B., et al. (2017). β-Alanine supplementation to improve exercise capacity and performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Br J Sports Med , 51(8), 658–669. Trexler, E. T., et al. (2015). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine . JISSN , 12(30).   https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y Widener, R. (2024, December 16). Should You Take Pre-Workout Supplements?  Health.   https://www.health.com/pre-workout-7106089

Human’s diets have been continuously changing since prehistoric times. From hunter-gatherers to farmers to the industrial scale food is produced at in the modern world, humans have transitioned from searching for food to creating it in abundance  ( Gardner, 2023 ) . For many, this modern lifestyle has introduced new problems; overeating and food addiction. These drug-like properties of food are explored in this article.   Link Food vs. Drugs’ Effects on Neurotransmitters  Drugs are known for and misused because of their addictiveness and perceived "euphoria" after consumption. One way to directly compare food and drugs is how they impact the brain and more specifically their role in the release of neurotransmitters (NTs). Two major NT’s that are produced and/or mimicked from drug use and generate the feeling of pleasure in users, are serotonin and dopamine. Both are “happy hormones” which play a role in mood, well-being, and motivation . ( Drugs and the Brain, 2020 ) . Foo d intake also releases these mood-affecting chemicals in the brain. According to Harvard Health Publishing, 95% of serotonin is produced in your gastrointestinal tract and is influenced by the “good” bacteria in the gut. A diet high in processed foods, sugar, and saturated fats reduces the “good” bacteria leading to imbalances in serotonin production and mood changes. ( Selhub, 2022 ) . Like serotonin, dopamine is produced in both the brain and gut when food intake occurs. This feeling of ‘reward’ is created by the brain to further encourage eating, reinforcing a survival behavior.  ( Gasmi et al., 2022 )  Although this reward response is less severe than drugs, food impacts the same areas of the brain as drugs do, demonstrating their similarities.  Drug or Not?  This question of whether food is a drug or not is a current debate in the scientific community. Those who believe food is a drug argue that food addiction occurs due to the same chemical processes as drug addiction. They both release dopamine and serotonin, which explains their pleasurable and habit-forming characteristics. Additionally, food can be harmful like drugs if one does not take it in the right quantity or has an unbalanced diet.  ( Robinson, 2022 )  On the other hand, those who argue food is not a drug, mention how food is necessary for survival, cravings are the product of deprivation, and the magnitude of the NT’s response is significantly lower for food intake when compared to drug usage. More specifically, that this ‘addiction’ to food is due to dieting and social pressures altering existing habits  ( Why Food is Not Addictive: Breaking Down the Myth, n.d. ) .  Link Key Takeaways Food, in the literal definition of a drug - a substance which has a physiological effect when in the body - falls under this definition. Yet, reputable medical organizations like the FDA explicitly exclude it  ( Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms, FDA ) . Because food is not as harmful as drugs, even though it activates the brain’s NT’s in the same way, it is not universally recognized as a drug. Over the past century though, as more processed foods enter and become the main source of calories, food will become increasingly dangerous. In the future, this definition will evolve as our eating habits continue to change. Food’s likeness to a drug depends on how you use it: Do you live to eat, or eat to live?  References Abuse, N. I. on D. (2020, July 6). Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction: Drugs and the Brain | NIDA .   https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain Gardner, G. (2023, June 1). Food: Abundant for How Long? food abundance. Center for the Advancement of the Steady State Economy . Gasmi, A., Nasreen, A., Menzel, A., Benahmed, A. G., Pivina, L., Noor, S., Peana, M., Chirumbolo, S., & Bjorklund, G. (2022, December 26). Neurotransmitters Regulation and Food Intake: The Role of Dietary Sources in Neurotransmission .   https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/1/210 https://steadystate.org/food-abundant-for-how-long/ MD, E. S. (2015, November 16). Nutritional psychiatry: Your brain on food . Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/nutritional-psychiatry-your-brain-on-food-201511168626 Research, C. for D. E. and. (2023). Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms. FDA .   https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvals-and-databases/drugsfda-glossary-terms Robinson, M. (2022, July 18). Eating ourselves to death: How food is a drug and what food abuse costs—Matthew Robinson, 2022 . Sage Journals.   https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/20503245221112577 The Pure Food and Drug Act: From History to Modern Regulations . (2022, September 7).   https://www.digicomply.com/blog/the-pure-food-and-drug-act Why Food is Not Addictive: Breaking Down the Myth—Wilder Wellness . (n.d.). Wilder Wellness. Retrieved June 22, 2025, from   https://www.wilderwellness.co/blog/why-food-is-not-addictive-breaking-down-the-myth Thumbnail: (Pure Food and Drug, n.d.)

The Taste Test On a sunny Wednesday afternoon, I biked down to Matcha Cafe Maiko, a specialty matcha cafe located near the Fens, not too far from the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. (I highly recommend their hojicha soft serve). I ordered a matcha latte and a hojicha latte, then settled into one of the cafe’s plastic green chairs to write this article. As I sipped my drinks and typed, I regularly made eye contact with the mural of Monkey D. Luffy plastered onto the back walls. The matcha was a vibrant green, which told me it was excellent quality. It tasted bright, fresh, and slightly grassy flavor, with an umami taste the sweeteners couldn’t disguise. The aftertaste was similar to the original taste. I drank some water as a palate cleanser before starting on the hojicha. Perhaps the hojicha's muted, light umber color reflected what I’d call a more comforting taste. I could pick out hints of caramel or chocolate, masked under a dark, earthy flavor. It was toasty and slightly smoky, like hot chocolate sitting around a campfire. Figure 1: From left to right, a hojicha and a matcha latte. How Matcha and Hojicha are Made The difference flavor between matcha and hojicha can be explained by the difference in their production processes. Both matcha and hojicha are made from Camellia sinensi,  a plant that also produces many other varieties of tea. For matcha, the plants are covered for weeks before their leaves are harvested, producing tencha. The shading process increases the amount of chlorophyll and the amino acid L-theanine in the leaves, which provides a natural, sustained energy boost during consumption. Other amino acids produced by this process give matcha its sweet, umami flavor. Finally, tencha is steamed, dried, and ground into matcha powder (Wong, 2024) . Figure 2: Camellia sinensi growing in the shade for tencha production. (Parish, 2022) Hojicha is produced by roasting the leaves, stems, and twigs of Camellia sinensi . The roasting process degrades the caffeine and flavor compounds called catechins, reducing bitterness. It also induces Maillard reactions that create pyrazines, a compound that create the roasted, nutty flavor and aroma of hojicha (Kurosaka et al., 2024) . Pyrazines are also present in coffee, chocolate, and baked goods which is why hojicha tends to have a coffee-like, chocolate flavor (Angeloni et al., 2021) . Consumption in Japan Traditionally, matcha was consumed through the Japanese tea ceremony, called chanoyu. The tea ceremony focused on precise whisking and serving, upholding the Zen Buddhist principles of mindfulness and harmony. Recently, matcha has become incorporated into food products such as KitKat and ice cream; however, it was not consumed as an everyday tea (Mamiya, 2024) . In contrast, hojicha is considered more accessible and is often served along meals, especially in the evenings. Children and the elderly can also enjoy it because of its low caffeine content (Kametani, 2025) . Figure 3: Japanese tea ceremony, or chanoyu. (Purvis, 2022) My Personal Pick If I really had to go with only one, I’d pick hojicha over matcha. I love chocolate and coffee, and I could pick up on those subtle flavors in the hojicha latte. However, the matcha did a much better job of waking me up—not just because of the extra caffeine, but because of its sharper and bitterer flavor. My ideal day would begin with a morning matcha to wake up, then a cozy hojicha to end the day. Both teas offer unique taste profiles and are perfect for their own moments. References About Tencha: The Leaves That Become Matcha Powder – Northeast Tea House . (2022, June 27).   https://northeastteahouse.com/blogs/news/about-tencha-the-leaves-that-become-matcha-powder Angeloni, S., Mustafa, A. M., Abouelenein, D., Alessandroni, L., Acquaticci, L., Mzekoue, F. K., Petrelli, R., Sagratini, G., Vittori, S., Torregiani, E., & Caprioli, G. (2021, June 24). Characterization of the Aroma Profile and Main Key Odorants of Espresso Coffee—PMC . National Library of Medicine.   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8270317/ How matcha is made in Japan . (n.d.). Naoki. Retrieved June 22, 2025, from   https://naokimatcha.com/blogs/articles/how-matcha-is-made-in-japan KAMETANI. (n.d.). KAMETANI . Japanese Green Tea Bulk Supplier | KAMETANI. Retrieved June 22, 2025, from   https://kametani-tea.com Kurosaka, C., Tagata, C., Nakagawa, S., Kobayashi, M., & Miyake, S. (2024). Effects of green tea and roasted green tea on human responses. Scientific Reports , 14 , 8588.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59383-y Purvis, L. (2022, October 24). What Is A Japanese Tea Ceremony And How To Attend One . Mizuba Tea Co.   https://mizubatea.com/blogs/news-1/what-is-a-tea-ceremony-and-how-to-attend-one The Rise of Matcha: The History of Japan’s Most Famous Powder . (2024, August 15). YEDOENSIS.   https://yedoensis.com/blogs/news/the-historical-journey-of-matcha Thumbail photo: taken by Adele

In most people, hormones send signals to the brain that regulate appetite by triggering feelings of hunger and fullness. What happens when this system doesn’t work? Prader-Willi Syndrome is a rare genetic condition that causes an extreme, persistent appetite. Beyond hunger, individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome face many challenges in their daily lives. The Science Behind Prader-Willi Syndrome Prader-Willi Syndrome results from the loss of function of genes on chromosome 15 (Foundation for Prader-Willi Research, 2020) . In a process called genomic imprinting, each person inherits a copy of chromosome 15 from both parents, but only the paternal copy is active ( National Human Genome Research Institute , 2025) . Most cases of Prader-Willi Syndrome result from missing or non-functional genes on the paternal copy. Some people also inherit two maternal copies of chromosome 15, which are both inactivated (Foundation for Prader-Willi Research, 2020) . These missing genes provide instructions for producing small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), which help create important proteins (Driscoll et al., 2024) . Therefore without snoRNAs, the proteins responsible for regulating hunger are not synthesized. Figure 1: Genomic imprinting. For chromosome 15, the paternal copy is active, while the maternal copy is silenced. (Chauhan, 2023) Living with the Disorder In infancy, symptoms include feeding difficulties, poor appetite, and low muscle tone. Infants also develop distinct physical features, which include almond-shaped eyes, a long and narrow head, small hands and feet, and short stature. These symptoms are followed by cognitive development issues, emotional outbursts, and polyphagia in childhood (Driscoll et al., 2024) . Polyphagia describes the feeling of extreme, insatiable hunger and often causes chronic overeating, which leads to obesity (Martínez Michel et al., 2016) . Figure 2: A girl with Prader-Willi Syndrome. (Marsh, 2018) Management and Treatment There is no cure for Prader-Willi Syndrome, but its symptoms are treatable. The most important aspect of treatment is maintaining a healthy weight, which is especially difficult because individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome need fewer calories than most people. Caring for individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome often involves hiding food and limiting access to it other than mealtimes. Children may also undergo hormone treatments that improve muscle tone and help change the physical features associated with the disorder (NHS England, 2017) . Key TakeAways Prader-Willi Syndrome causes significant physical, cognitive, and behavioral challenges. Though symptoms are treatable, individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome often require lifelong support and caregiving. Continued research is essential to developing better treatments and improving the lives of people with this disorder. References Driscoll, D. J., Miller, J. L., & Cassidy, S. B. (1993). Prader-Willi Syndrome. In M. P. Adam, J. Feldman, G. M. Mirzaa, R. A. Pagon, S. E. Wallace, & A. Amemiya (Eds.), GeneReviews® . University of Washington, Seattle. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1330/ Prader-Willi syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics . (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2025, from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/prader-willi-syndrome/ Michel, L. M., Haqq, A. M., & Wismer, W. V. (2016, April 1). A review of chemosensory perceptions, food preferences and food-related behaviours in subjects with Prader–Willi Syndrome—ScienceDirect . https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666315301306 Research, F. for P.-W. (n.d.). What is Prader-Willi Syndrome . Retrieved June 15, 2025, from https://www.fpwr.org/what-is-prader-willi-syndrome Prader-Willi syndrome—Management . (2017, October 23). Nhs.Uk . https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/prader-willi-syndrome/living-with/ Coppen, E. (2018, October 29). Syndromes: Prader-Willi syndrome  [Text]. RCNi. https://rcni.com/learning-disability-practice/evidence-and-practice/clinical/syndromes-prader-willi-syndrome-140846 Chauhan, D. T. (2023, January 11). The Molecular Mechanism of Genomic Imprinting. Genetic Education . https://geneticeducation.co.in/the-molecular-mechanism-of-genomic-imprinting/ Thumbnail: photograph taken by Siegfried Poepperl

Many health and fitness influencers hype up high-protein diets for muscle tone and overall health. While there may be some benefits to higher protein diets, especially if you are an athlete, is eating more protein truly good for fitness and performance? What are Proteins? One of the three macronutrients along with carbs and fat, protein is necessary for countless biochemical functions like development and tissue repair ( When It Comes to Protein , 2018). The recommended intake of protein is 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight ( When It Comes to Protein , 2018) with slight differences between men and women. People who exercise frequently and need to repair muscle tissue more often may need to consume more. Contrary to popular belief, while protein may help benefit certain aspects of performance, eating too much protein can cause kidney dysfunction and increase muscular cramps. Damage of Too Much Protein on Kidney Health High protein intake causes more acid to be produced in body fluids. (Barzel & Massey, 1998 as cited in Delimaris, 2013). Increase in protein intake has also been associated with hypercalciuria, a condition when the body secretes overly calcium-concentrated urine, which in turn decreases calcium retention in the body. Lower calcium has also been correlated with bone loss and increased risk of bone fractures (Hanahan & Weinberg, 2011). Increased calcium in the urine due to hypercalciuria can also cause kidney stone formation (Goldfarb, 1988 as cited in Delimaris, 2013).  Proteins Association with Muscle Cramps Calcium is also essential for proper muscle contraction, and having low retention of calcium may dysregulate muscle contraction, increasing muscle cramps. In the same way, the kidneys need more water to filter the acids, taking necessary hydration away from muscles. Interestingly, eating more amounts of protein does not necessarily increase thirst, so people may not feel dehydrated when they actually are. Not realizing they are dehydrated and not drinking enough water increases the risk of muscle cramps. Key Takeaways Associated with conditions like hypercalciuria, bone loss, kidney stones, and muscular cramps, high-protein diets have downsides. Social media influencers often publicize high-protein diets to increase muscle tone and mass, and while protein may help these areas, eating too much protein for your needs may do more harm than good. The research is not to say that eating a high-protein diet is always harmful; however, it is important to learn how your own body functions, and not rely heavily on what works for others. references Barzel, U. S., & Massey, L. K. (1998). Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. The Journal of Nutrition , 128 (6), 1051–1053.   https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/128.6.1051 Delimaris, I. (2013). Adverse Effects Associated with Protein Intake above the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Adults. ISRN Nutrition , 2013 , 126929.  https://doi.org/10.5402/2013/126929 Goldfarb, S. (1988). Dietary factors in the pathogenesis and prophylaxis of calcium nephrolithiasis. Kidney International , 34 (4), 544–555.   https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1988.216 Hypercalciuria—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics . (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2025, from   https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/hypercalciuria When it comes to protein, how much is too much?  (2018, May 9). Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/nutrition/when-it-comes-to-protein-how-much-is-too-much

Acne and blemishes are common, natural skin conditions that can appear on one's skin after puberty that can be influenced by various factors, including diet. Teenagers, due to hormonal influences, are especially prone to acne and skin blemish accumulation ( Acne ). Interestingly, certain foods can help combat these skin conditions by improving overall skin health for glowing and clear skin. Link Anti-Inflammatory Foods Foods rich in antioxidants, such as fruits and vegetables, play a crucial role in reducing inflammation. Berries, spinach, and kale are packed with vitamins A, C, and E, which help fight oxidative stress and promote skin healing. In others, they constitute to glowing, clear, and pliant-appearing skin. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fatty fish like salmon and walnuts, also possess anti-inflammatory properties that can help reduce acne outbreaks ( Millward, 2014 ). Low Glycemic Index Foods A glycemic index is a measurement given to foods based on how fast they can make your blood sugar increase upon consumption. The glycemic index is based on a scale from 1-100. The higher the number, the quicker the food will raise blood sugar. High glycemic index (GI) foods (GI of 70+), such as white bread and sugary snacks, can cause spikes in insulin levels, leading to increased oil production and acne. Incorporating low GI foods (GI of 55 and below) —such as legumes, whole grains, and most fruits—can help maintain stable blood sugar levels and reduce the likelihood of breakouts ( Meixiong, 2022 ) . Link Probiotics and Fermented Foods Commonly found in yogurt or fermented vegetables, probiotics are live bacteria and yeast that restore and maintain healthy gut environment ( What are Probiotics ) . Gut health is strongly linked with skin conditions. Therefore, foods high in probiotics like kombucha, kimchi, sauerkraut, miso, and pickles promote not only healthy gut microbiota but also healthy skin. A strong gut microbiome can reduce inflammation and improve skin clarity, making it an essential component in combating acne ( Habeebuddin, 2022 ) . Link Key Takeaways Just remember, acne and skin blemishes are completely normal, and they happen to a lot of teenagers and even adults. That being said, a balanced diet rich in anti-inflammatory, low GI, and probiotic foods can significantly contribute to clearer skin, exemplifying the fascinating connection between nutrition and skin health. References Acne . (2021, November). Teens Health.   https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/acne.html Habeebuddin, M., Karnati, R. K., Shiroorkar, P. N., Nagaraja, S., Asdaq, S. M. B., Khalid Anwer, Md., & Fattepur, S. (2022). Topical Probiotics: More Than a Skin Deep. Pharmaceutics , 14 (3), 557.   https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14030557 Meixiong, J., Ricco, C., Vasavda, C., & Ho, B. K. (2022). Diet and acne: A systematic review. JAAD International , 7 , 95–112.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdin.2022.02.012 Millward, A. (2014, November 23). Anti-Inflammatory Diet For Optimum Skin Health . Andy Millward - Facialist.   https://andymillward-facialist.co.uk/anti-inflammatory-diet-for-optimum-skin-health/ What Are Probiotics & What Do They Do?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved March 17, 2025, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/14598-probiotics

Protein powder has gained immense popularity within the past decade. Coming in all different shapes, sizes, and strange flavors (like cotton candy), one type continues to stand out: whey. With years of research backing its safety and a surplus of outstanding reviews, whey remains one of the most effective nutritional supplements in the world. Do you know the whey? What is whey exactly? Strangely, the powder is a natural byproduct of cheese-making. When milk is curdled during cheese production, the milky liquid that separates from the curds is called “whey.” It is then processed into several forms, the most common being concentrate, isolate, and hydrolysate. Each one offers different levels of purity and absorption, fulfilling different needs for athletes across the board ( Medpark Hospital, 2023 ). Its effectiveness and quality make it one staple in sports nutrition. Link:   whey appears as the liquid surrounding the curdled cheese How is whey so effective? Whey is special due to its comprehensive amino acid profile. The supplement contains all nine essential amino acids that the body can’t produce much of. The amino acids serve as the brick-and-mortar for the protein synthesis in your body. Even better, according to the International Society of Sports Nutrition, whey can be quickly absorbed after ingestion ( Jäger et al., JISSN , 2017 ). This rapid digestion makes it ideal for all situations, from a post-workout snack to a full meal. Link :   comprehensive list of amino acids Be mindful of what you put in your body! Still, whey is not for everyone. Although whey isolate typically contains less lactose than whey concentrate, people with dairy allergies or lactose intolerance can experience discomfort. There are also risks when choosing which brands to take. The FDA labels whey protein powder as a dietary supplement, so there is no requirement for official safety evaluations. The lack of evaluations allows some brands to cheat out high-quality ingredients for chemicals and cheap materials to gain a larger profit margin. ( Harvard Health Publishing, 2018 ). Link :   NOT AN AD, but a good brand to purchase Key takeaways Before taking any supplement, it is always important to consider what your body needs first. Whether you’re looking for recovery from a hard day of training or a tasty meal that keeps you full, with careful selection, you can’t go wrong with a scoop or two of high-quality whey protein powder. References The hidden dangers of protein powders . Harvard Health. (2022, August 15). https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-hidden-dangers-of-protein-powders Jäger, R., Kerksick, C. M., Campbell, B. I., Cribb, P. J., Wells, S. D., Skwiat, T. M., Purpura, M., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Ferrando, A. A., Arent, S. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Arciero, P. J., Ormsbee, M. J., Taylor, L. W., Wilborn, C. D., Kalman, D. S., Kreider, R. B., Willoughby, D. S., … Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition , 14 (1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8 Whey protein - types, benefits, why should I take it? . MedPark Hospital. (2024, September 20). https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/lifestyles/whey-protein

Everyone’s heard that Vitamin D is important and spending more time in the sun is good. But why exactly? This article will explore the benefits of Vitamin D, what happens when the body doesn’t get enough of it, and where it comes from.    What is Vitamin D?  Vitamin D is a fat-soluble nutrient that can be consumed either through various food sources or produced when one's skin is exposed to sunlight. The “sunshine vitamin” is important for maintaining bone health, calcium levels, and immune system function ( Vitamin D, 2025 ). Unlike most vitamins, Vitamin D acts like a hormone. Once in the body, it is activated in the liver and kidneys and travels to the bloodstream to various organs like the brain and intestines to regulate bodily functions ( Ellison & Moran, 2020).      Dangers Of a Lack of Vitamin D  According to the NIH, from 2001 to 2008, 40.9% of Americans had a Vitamin D deficiency. An additional 24.6% had a Vitamin D2 deficiency  (Cui et al., 2022) . Vitamin D deficiency in America is due to modern lifestyle habits and diets. Generally, more people are spending more time indoors and are eating more processed, nutrient-lacking foods. Playing a role in a variety of crucial processes, a lack of Vitamin D has many impacts especially during childhood and adolescence when the body is rapidly growing. Deficiency in vitamin D can cause rickets in children (also called osteomalacia in adults). Rickets is characterized by softer bones that are more prone to fractures. Other harms of insufficient vitamin D are weakened immune system issues in mood regulation (like Seasonal Affective Disorder), and increased inflammation  (Vitamin D Deficiency, 2022).   Link :   a comparison of healthy bones to ricket-affected bones Food Sources with Vitamin D  A great way to avoid vitamin D deficiency is to have a good diet rich in Vitamin D. There are many foods naturally packed with the vitamin, including fish, egg yolks, and beef liver. In addition to these, there are vegetarian options fortified in Vitamin D such as plant-based and cow milk, cereals, and tofu  (7 Vitamin D Foods, 2023) .  Besides having a diet sufficient in vitamin D, supplements are also another way for people to intake vitamin D. There are many foods rich in Vitamin D, making it easy to reach the recommended daily value while still enjoying a varied diet.  Link : foods rich in vitamin D Key Takeaways  It is important for the body to have enough Vitamin D because of how many of the vital processes it impacts. The three main ways to get Vitamin D are through the sun, food, and supplements. The easiest way to produce Vitamin D is naturally through the sun, but depending on the location, season, and amount of melanin, vitamin D acquisition can vary from person to person. Thus, a consistent diet or taking supplements guarantees Vitamin D sufficiency throughout the year.   References  Cesari, M., Incalzi, R. A., Zamboni, V., & Pahor, M. (2011). The Vitamin D Hormone: A Multitude of Actions Potentially Influencing the Physical Function Decline in Older Persons. Geriatrics & Gerontology International , 11 (2), 133–142.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0594.2010.00668.x Cui, A., Xiao, P., Ma, Y., Fan, Z., Zhou, F., Zheng, J., & Zhang, L. (2022). Prevalence, trend, and predictor analyses of vitamin D deficiency in the US population, 2001–2018. Frontiers in Nutrition , 9 , 965376.   https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.965376 Ellison, D. L., & Moran, H. R. (2021). Vitamin D: Vitamin or Hormone? The Nursing Clinics of North America , 56 (1), 47–57.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnur.2020.10.004 Khazai, N., Judd, S. E., & Tangpricha, V. (2008). Calcium and Vitamin D: Skeletal and Extraskeletal Health. Current Rheumatology Reports , 10 (2), 110–117.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11926-008-0020-y Office of Dietary Supplements—Vitamin D . (n.d.). Retrieved June 14, 2025, from   https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ Rickets: All You Wanted to Know . (n.d.). Apollo Hospitals. Retrieved June 14, 2025, from   https://www.apollohospitals.com/corporate/diseases-and-conditions/rickets-all-you-wanted-to-know/ Seasonal Affective Disorder—National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) . (n.d.). Retrieved June 14, 2025, from   https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder Vieth, R. (2004). Why “Vitamin D” is not a hormone, and not a synonym for 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D, its analogs or deltanoids. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , 89–90 , 571–573.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.03.037 Vitamin D Deficiency: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment . (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved June 14, 2025, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15050-vitamin-d-vitamin-d-deficiency

It is common to hear a variety of advice leading up to a standardized test like, “eat breakfast” and “get a good night's rest.” But oftentimes, an extremely important part is left out: remembering to hydrate well. Hydration is a key factor in cognitive performance, memory, and attention which, if taken advantage of, can help test takers significantly on tests and exams. Hydration's Effects on Cognitive Abilities As standardized testing and AP season is creeping up, it is important to prioritize health and wellbeing for the best test experience. In addition to getting good nights of rest leading up to testing, it is also extremely important to hydrate sufficiently throughout the week. According to ACSM’s health and fitness journal, “even mild dehydration—a body water loss of 1-2%—can impair cognitive abilities” ( Armstrong et al., 2011  and Ganio et al., 2011  as cited in Riebl & Davy, 2013 ). To add on, dehydration also decreases concentration, slower reaction time, and short term-memory problems, all of which may decrease overall performance on standardized tests ( Armstrong et al., 2011  and Ganio et al., 2011  as cited in Riebl & Davy, 2013 ). Indirect effects of DeHydration on Test Performance Dehydration also alters the areas that may indirectly impact cognitive function. Dehydration is also correlated with increased moodiness and anxiety ( Riebl & Davy, 2013 ). Most people would probably not want to enter their test site already feeling stressed and anxious in addition to common pre-test anxiety. Dizziness, fatigue, irritability, headaches, and nausea may also arise due to insufficient hydration ( Riebl & Davy, 2013 ). On the contrary, drinking enough fluids may grant you a clear head and a sense of calm before a test, which is arguably just as important as being prepared for the intellectual parts of the exam. Test Performance Correlation Not only has hydration boosted cognitive function, but there is also direct evidence to support performance on actual standardized tests. According to the Johns Hopkins News-Letter, students who brought and drank water during exams scored better than those who did not bring water ( Marino Lee, 2019 ). Unsurprisingly, the benefits of hydration like increased cognitive performance directly corresponds to high performance on tests. Link Key Takeaways Evidently, proper hydration is a beneficial hack that can significantly improve cognitive function and test performance. Whether it be finals, AP exams, or standardized tests, water and other hydrating drinks are your best friends. So whenever you feel any of the symptoms, just remember: with water to drink, the easier it is to think. References Armstrong, L. E., Ganio, M. S., Casa, D. J., Lee, E. C., McDermott, B. P., Klau, J. F., Jimenez, L., Le Bellego, L., Chevillotte, E., & Lieberman, H. R. (2012). Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. The Journal of Nutrition , 142 (2), 382–388.   https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.142000 Ganio, M. S., Armstrong, L. E., Casa, D. J., McDermott, B. P., Lee, E. C., Yamamoto, L. M., Marzano, S., Lopez, R. M., Jimenez, L., Le Bellego, L., Chevillotte, E., & Lieberman, H. R. (2011). Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men. The British Journal of Nutrition , 106 (10), 1535–1543.   https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114511002005 Marino Lee, S. (2019, December 5). Finals Health Series: High water intake is linked to better exam scores . The Johns Hopkins News-Letter.   https://www.jhunewsletter.com/article/2019/12/finals-health-series-high-water-intake-is-linked-to-better-exam-scores Riebl, S. K., & Davy, B. M. (2013). The Hydration Equation: Update on Water Balance and Cognitive Performance. ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal , 17 (6), 21–28.   https://doi.org/10.1249/FIT.0b013e3182a9570f