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Known as the ‘second brain’, the gut plays many roles in the body from controlling functions like swallowing to impacting mood. A huge part of it is the gut microbiome. Thought of as a virtual organ because of its importance, the gut microbiome is a complex system of over a 100 trillion living microorganisms. These microscopic organisms can reflect not just the stomach’s health, but the health of the entire body ( Feed Your Gut , 2021) . Figure 1. A diagram of the various physiological functions the gut microbiome contributes to (Afzaal et al., n.d.) . How your gut works Every person has a unique gut microbiome populated with species of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. This unique makeup is introduced during birth and infancy, then later develops and evolves as one’s diet changes over time. Most of the organisms in the gut have a symbiotic relationship with the body: the body provides shelter and food, while they complete services that the body can’t on its own. For example, the good bugs help break down certain complex carbohydrates and dietary fibers as well as various vitamins including B1, B9, B12, and K. Beneficial microorganisms also keep harmful bugs in check, produce neurotransmitters like serotonin which regulate mood, and support immune system health ( What Is Your Gut Microbiome? , n.d.) . A balance of these various  microbes is key for overall health—something that can be greatly improved through a  balanced diet.  Figure 2. Foods high in fiber that gut microbes can use to support gut function (Younkin, 2025) . Importance of a balanced diet Diet determines the exact makeup of the gut microbiome. Like all living organisms, the  microbes in the gut thrive in certain conditions. The natural acidity of the gut is the right  balance: it isn’t so acidic that all the good microorganisms die off, but it is acidic enough to kill off most bad microorganisms. Any unhealthy diet, especially the Western diet high in processed foods, red meat, and fat, can push the gut away from ideal conditions. Specific foods can also help introduce the right bacteria to the gut. Probiotics, for example, are one of the many ‘good bugs’ that improve digestion and kill off harmful bacteria. They are found in all fermented foods including yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi (Oliveira, 2025) . Just eating some of these ‘gut friendly’ foods occasionally won’t help—these must be consistently integrated into a person’s diet.  Key Takeaways It is important to keep the gut microbiome healthy as it influences almost every system in the body. The best way to support a healthy gut is by paying attention to the foods you eat and aiming for balance and variety in your diet. By including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and  fermented foods, you create the best environment for the good microbes to thrive. Taking care of your gut isn’t just about digestion, but it's a key part of long-term health, increased immunity, and even a better mood.  References Feed your gut . (2021, April 1). Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/feed-your-gut Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shah, Y. A., Hussain, M., Rabail, R., Socol, C. T., Hassoun, A., Pateiro, M., Lorenzo, J. M., Rusu, A. V., & Aadil, R. M. (n.d.). Frontiers | Human gut microbiota in health and disease: Unveiling the relationship . Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.999001/full What Is Your Gut Microbiome?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved March 6, 2026, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/25201-gut-microbiome Oliveira, N. (2025, March 4). Probiotics for Gut Health. The Nutrition Source .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/probiotics/ Younkin, L. (2025, March 21). Best Foods to Eat for Gut Health . EatingWell.   https://www.eatingwell.com/article/2059033/best-and-worst-foods-to-eat-for-gut-health/ Thumbnail Image: (Younkin, 2025)

What is Kelp? Kelp is a type of large, brown seaweed that grows in abundance in cool, coastal waters. Although kelp undergoes photosynthesis to produce energy, it is not to be mistaken for a plant. Instead, it is considered a marine algae. As an algae, kelp provides habitat, food, and shelter to countless biodiverse ecosystems in the oceanic biosphere. Environmentally, they play a crucial role in carbon sequestration,  which is the process of capturing atmospheric carbon and storing it naturally, which significantly reduces the effects of climate change. Structurally, they provide support to coastlines, protect nearby land from erosion, and improve water quality (Hall, 2024) . Figure 1. Digit kelp growing in ocean waters of Nova Scotia ( New National Blueprint , 2025) . Luckily, kelp grows incredibly fast, some species growing about 1.5-2 feet per day (“Giant Kelp”, 2018) . This fast growth rate comes in handy for reducing ocean acidification , which occurs when too much carbon dioxide is dissolved in sea water. Since faster growth can sequester more carbon dioxide, which can acidify the water, kelp is often a tool used to restore pH levels to a more typical range. Kelp also has a unique ability to absorb excess nitrogen and phosphorus, which can prevent rapid population growth of other algae, more formally known as algal blooms (Brisbin, 2023) . Figure 2. Example of what algal blooms look like (Geist, 2018) . Kelp’s Production of Alginate and its Applications Beyond the ocean, kelp also has various applications in multiple industries. Within the cell walls of algae lies a carbohydrate called alginate , which can be found in countless products ranging from ice cream, toothpaste, paper, lotion, and much more. Alginate has a useful property where it can form a gel-like structure without temperature changes, unlike agar and gelatin, making it increasingly more sought out in manufacturing (Abka-khajouei et al., 2022) . Due to its chemical structure, it is also considered a thickening, stabilizing, and emulsifying agent, rendering it particularly useful for culinary (i.e. ice cream and salad dressing), pharmaceutical, and cosmetic goods (i.e. face masks, shampoo, and conditioner). Furthermore, alginate is also bio-compatible, meaning its biodegradability and nontoxicity make it a great option for medical applications like wound healing and drug encapsulation (Gheorghita Puscaselu et al., 2020) . Other benefits to using alginate in manufacturing is its cost-effectiveness and renewability as a resource since kelp is relatively abundant. Figure 3. Dental impressions are an example of a product that is commonly made using alginate, giving it its thick texture (Weichenthal, 2023) . Kelp as an Emerging as a Ne w Cro p Its benefits can be seen both nutritionally and agriculturally. Kelp is considered a superfood, containing nutrients such as iodine, vitamins A, K, and B12, calcium, iron, magnesium, and antioxidants, with proven benefits to thyroid function, immune health, and digestive wellness ( Home , n.d.) .  To cultivate plants, kelp meal can also be used as fertilizer or to quicken composting processes. Kelp serves as a biostimulant , meaning it naturally speeds up nutrient absorption and tolerance to abiotic stress; this quality grants it the ability to fertilize crops or stimulate microbial activity during composting (Hageman, 2025) . Given all of these benefits, it is no wonder that kelp is emerging as a new crop. Figure 4. The organization GreenWave, harvests Kelp to be manufactured into fertilizer for crops ( Seaweed-Powered Agriculture , n.d.) . Kelp is not just useful in its components, but in its entirety as well, and its value as a crop is currently growing rapidly. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, seaweed farming is one of the fastest growing sectors in aquaculture, with a current value of 6 billion dollars ( Kelp Farming , 2025) . In Alaska specifically, kelp is inventing an entire new industry of farming (Stopha, n.d.) . Kelp has also made leaps in aquaculture, and is a leading example in regenerative farming. To restore ecosystems, farmers have been using kelp to stabilize populations of oysters, clams, and mussels. This 3D ocean farming model, as it is called by its founding organization GreenWave, creates a commensal environment where kelp assist shellfish growth through carbon sequestration and reducing algal booms while shellfish filtering out pollutants, improving water quality for the kelp to grow in (Inletkeeper, 2020) . Environmental Factors to Consider in the Kelp Industry Kelp is gaining popularity, and with more people knowledgeable about its rapidly growing market, it is important to consider the drawbacks of harvesting large amounts of kelp, specifically its environmental impact. Harvesting kelp has plenty of benefits which have led to new era ocean regenerative agriculture, utilizing its abundance to manufacture products, and using its unique properties to fertilize crops. However, harvesting should still be done moderately and cautiously. Industrial harvesting , or harvesting kelp in large quantities, can disrupt marine habitats, encourage land erosion, and reduce overall biodiversity within ecosystems. And, since kelp is primary producer, an essential resource for many living organisms within an oceanic region, reducing kelp can deplete sea otter, fish, and octopus populations (Araujo et al., 2013) . While gaining awareness of how the kelp industry can benefit the environment and contribute to widespread nutrition, it is important to consider the drawbacks of overharvesting, a reminder that even renewable resources should never be exploited. Key Takeaways Learning about the kelp industry, the products it's responsible for, and environmental benefits is crucial to realizing its impact in the food science and production world. If kelp is just one example of how we can use natural resources sustainably and innovatively for numerous economic, agricultural, and ecological applications, what other opportunities are there? Being conscious of both the benefits and drawbacks is necessary when considering future plans for harvesting kelp, and the same goes for any industry using natural resources. Kelp demonstrates that it's not primarily about what resources we have, but how we use them responsibly, setting the tone for a brighter, more sustainable world. References Abka-khajouei, R., Tounsi, L., Shahabi, N., Patel, A. K., Abdelkafi, S., & Michaud, P. (2022). Structures, Properties and Applications of Alginates. Marine Drugs , 20 (6), 364.   https://doi.org/10.3390/md20060364 Araujo, R. M., Bartsch, I., Bekkby, T., Erzini, K., & Sousa-Pinto, I. (2013). What is the impact of kelp forest density and/or area on fisheries? Environmental Evidence , 2 (1), 15.   https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-15 Brisbin, M. (2023, September 7). How Fast Does Kelp Grow?  How Fast Does Kelp Grow?   https://www.veritree.com/post/how-fast-does-kelp-grow Geist, M. E. (2018, May 23). A Growing Epidemic of Toxic Algal Blooms—Great Lakes Now . Great Lakes Now.   https://www.greatlakesnow.org/2018/05/23/a-growing-epidemic-of-toxic-algal-blooms/ Gheorghita Puscaselu, R., Lobiuc, A., Dimian, M., & Covasa, M. (2020). Alginate: From Food Industry to Biomedical Applications and Management of Metabolic Disorders. Polymers , 12 (10), 2417.   https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102417 Giant kelp switches diet when key nutrient becomes scarce. (2018, June 7). [U.S. National Science Foundation].   https://www.nsf.gov/news/giant-kelp-switches-diet-when-key-nutrient-becomes Hageman, B. (2025, October 9). Kelp Meal Fertilizer: A Boost for Healthy Plant Growth . Grow Organic.   https://www.groworganic.com/blogs/articles/kelp-meal-a-sustainable-and-nutritious-way-to-fertilize-your-garden Hall, D. (2024, July). Kelp and Kelp Forests | Smithsonian Ocean . Kelp and Kelp Forests.   https://ocean.si.edu/kelp-and-kelp-forests Home . (n.d.). Atlantic Sea Farms. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://atlanticseafarms.com/ Inletkeeper, C. (2020, December 8). GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services - Inletkeeper. GreenWave’s Regenerative Ocean Farming: A Case Study in Generating Ecosystem Services .   https://inletkeeper.org/regenerative-ocean-farming/ Kelp Farming: Ocean Restoration That Pays Coastal Towns . (2025, October 11). Science Array.   https://environment.sciencearray.com/kelp-forests-ocean-restoration-coastal-economy Seaweed-Powered Agriculture: Biostimulants Bridge Land and Sea . (n.d.). GreenWave. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/agrisea-biostimulant Stopha, M. (n.d.). Alaska Kelp Farming, Alaska Department of Fish and Game . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved March 5, 2026, from   https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=949 Weichenthal, C. (2023, January 25). What is alginate? | maxill . Maxill Dental.   https://www.maxill.com/us/blog/post/what-is-alginate-and-how-is-it-used Thumbnail image: ( New National Blueprint , 2025)

Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is indigestible. Unlike other carbohydrates, which are broken down into glucose, fiber passes through the body mostly intact (The Nutrition Source, 2022) . But if we can’t break down fiber, then what does it do? Furthermore, if our own digestive system cannot metabolize fiber, then what does? Types of Fiber There are two different types of fiber, each with its own purpose in the body. Soluble fiber dissolves in water and becomes a gel, slowing digestion. Foods such as oatmeal, chia seeds, nuts, and lentils are rich in soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, moves food throughout the digestive system. It adds bulk to the stool, which causes stool to pass more quickly and helps prevent constipation. Insoluble fiber is found in foods such as wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains (“Soluable”, 2024) . Figure 1. Various foods that are rich in fiber (“Fiber Rich”, 2023) . How Fiber Interacts with the Body In the stomach, soluble fiber absorbs water and swells, creating a feeling of fullness. As it moves through the small intestine, fiber binds to cholesterol particles, preventing their absorption and naturally lowering blood cholesterol levels. In the large intestine, fiber becomes food for beneficial gut bacteria ( UCLA Health, 2025) . These microorganisms ferment certain types of fiber, producing short-chain fatty acids. This fermentation process also supports a healthy gut microbiome, which is important for digestive and immune function (Mann et al., 2024) . Other Health Benefits Beyond improving digestive processes, fiber can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Insoluble fiber helps lower glucose levels and blood cholesterol, which are significant risk factors for cardiovascular disease. By promoting satiety and reducing food intake, fiber also aids in weight control, helping to lower the risk of heart disease associated with being overweight (Lewine, 2024) . Fiber also reduces the risk of colorectal cancer. Short-chain fatty acids, produced through the fermentation of fiber, sustain colon cells and help maintain their healthy function. The fermentation of fiber also promotes beneficial bacterial growth while inhibiting harmful bacteria that can contribute to cancer development (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Figure 2. Schematic showing the production of various short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) by the gut microbiome (Miya et al., 2023) . Since fiber slows down digestion, it can prevent blood glucose surges after eating and reduce the need for insulin spikes for individuals with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, fiber's role in weight management indirectly supports diabetes control because maintaining a healthy weight is important for insulin sensitivity and blood sugar regulation (Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012) . Key Takeaways A fiber-rich diet is associated with many health benefits, such as healthy bowel function and a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. By understanding how fiber works in the body, people can make informed dietary choices that support their long-term health. References Fiber. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/carbohydrates/fiber/ Functional Nutritionist NYC - Nutrition Expert Long Island. (n.d.). Philip Rabito, MD . Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://www.philiprabitomd.com/nutrition-doctor/ Kaczmarczyk, M. M., Miller, M. J., & Freund, G. G. (2012). The health benefits of dietary fiber: Beyond the usual suspects of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and colon cancer. Metabolism , 61 (8), 1058–1066.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2012.01.017 Lewine, H. E. (2024, February 5). Eat more fiber-rich foods to foster heart health . Harvard Health Publishing.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/eat-more-fiber-rich-foods-to-foster-heart-health Mann, E. R., Lam, Y. K., & Uhlig, H. H. (2024). Short-chain fatty acids: Linking diet, the microbiome and immunity. Nature Reviews Immunology , 24 (8), 577–595.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01014-8 Miya, T., Marima, R., Damane, B., Ledet, E., & Dlamini, Z. (2023). Dissecting Microbiome-Derived SCFAs in Prostate Cancer: Analyzing Gut Microbiota, Racial Disparities, and Epigenetic Mechanisms. Cancers , 15 , 4086.   https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15164086 Soluble vs. insoluble fiber: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia . (n.d.). National Library of Medicine. Retrieved February 27, 2026, from   https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002136.htm uclahealth. (2023, April 23). Soluble fiber: What it is and why you need it | UCLA Health . UCLA Health.   https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/soluble-fiber-what-it-and-why-you-need-it Thumbnail image: UCSF Magazine

MSG (monosodium glutamate) is the sodium salt of one of the most commonly occurring amino acids, glutamic acid . This non-essential amino acid is naturally synthesized in the human body and in many high-protein foods, tomatoes, cheese, and mushrooms, creating the umami flavor described as savory and meaty (Glutamate, 2022) .  Although glutamic acid is abundant and safe, its counterpart MSG, an isolated and concentrated form, has gained a controversial reputation after a series of reactions in the American public during the 1960’s known as the Chinese Restaurant Syndrome . To understand more about its controversy, we must first, ask what is MSG? How is it different from natural glutamic acid? And why do so many love its signature flavor? Figure 1. Ch emical structures of glutamic acid, monosodium glutamate, and glutamate (Simpson, 2023) .  Mushroom's Natural Production of Glutamic Acid vs. MSG (Production and Flavor): To understand the differences between natural glutamic acid and MSG, it is important to understand their production processes. Glutamic acid is an amino acid created by the breakdown of a protein. This process can be seen in mushrooms, where glutamic acid is a natural byproduct of their protein metabolism. Additionally, mushrooms’ umami flavor can be further enhanced through fermentation , which breaks down even more proteins to increase the amount of glutamic acid. Similarly, artificially produced MSG is created through the fermentation of various foods like starch, sugar beets, sugarcane, or molasses through the bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum . The free glutamic acid is then separated, extracted, and then neutralized using sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to create its salt form. While both sources yield glutamic acid, the key to MSG’s intense umami flavor lies in how it delivers free glutamate in its most readily available form (Berg, 2019) . What Gives MSG its flavor?: Umami flavor is received through umami receptors on the tongue. The glutamate binds to these receptors which are distributed throughout the tongue. When MSG is consumed, it dissociates into sodium and glutamate in the mouth. The free glutamate, which is identical in structure to that found naturally in mushrooms and cheese, activates the umami receptors, triggering a distinct savory feeling. Unlike glutamic acid still bound within proteins – how it is normally found in food – which must be broken down during digestion, MSG delivers glutamate in its active form (Vandenbeuch & Kinnaman, 2016) .  This instant delivery is what gives MSG its signature intensity and why it is such a powerful flavor enhancer.  Figure 2. Flavor receptors in the tongue (Silberner, 2024) . Key Takeaways MSG, the most concentrated form of umami flavor, is unique because it instantly delivers glutamate to the tongue’s receptors. MSG is a favorite in the food industry and is used in a variety of foods around the world. Still, the stigma around it has led to bans and limitations of its use around the world. While some studies, individuals, and media claim it has adverse effects on health, most studies have come to the conclusion that current research is not adequate to come to a verdict about its health properties, and that more detailed research is needed (Zanfirescu et. al, 2019) . While its artificial production and incorporation into manufactured goods is contested, its natural production from everyday foods like mushrooms and cheese make its abundance a true wonder of food science. References Dr. Eric Berg DC. (2019, October 20). MSG vs Glutamate: What’s the Difference?  [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKTqXqD6dZ4 Freeman, M. (2006). Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: A literature review. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners , 18 (10), 482–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x Glutamate: What It Is & Function . (2022, April 25). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22839-glutamate Mantzioris, E. (2024, September 9). MSG is back. Is the idea it’s bad for us just a myth or food science?  The Conversation. https://doi.org/10.64628/AA.akft7ykkd Silberner, J. (2024, May 29). The Textbooks Were Wrong About How Your Tongue Works—The New York Times . The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/29/science/taste-buds-tongue-map.html Simpson, M. (2023, July 16). MSG — one of the largest food myths being pushed. Skeptical Raptor . https://www.skepticalraptor.com/skepticalraptorblog.php/msg-myth-one-of-the-most-persistent-in-the-pseudoscience-of-food/ Vandenbeuch, A., & Kinnamon, S. C. (2016). Glutamate: Tastant and Neuromodulator in Taste Buds123. Advances in Nutrition , 7 (4), 823S-827S. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.011304 Zanfirescu, A., Ungurianu, A., Tsatsakis, A. M., Nițulescu, G. M., Kouretas, D., Veskoukis, A., Tsoukalas, D., Engin, A. B., Aschner, M., & Margină, D. (2019). A review of the alleged health hazards of monosodium glutamate. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 18 (4), 1111–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12448 Thumbnail image: (Mantzioris, 2024)

Caffeine is one of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances in the world, valued for its stimulating effects on the brain and body. To understand how caffeine works, it is necessary to examine its biological mechanisms and the genetic factors that influence caffeine sensitivity. What is Caffeine? Caffeine is a naturally occurring central nervous system stimulant in the methylxanthine class, a group of drugs with stimulatory and bronchodilatory (or the ability to open up airways and lungs) effects. These drugs are often used to treat patients with conditions restricting airways, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and apnea (Gottwalt & Tadi, 2023) . For this reason, caffeine can be used to stimulate breathing in premature infants and prevent apnea , or pauses in breathing (Oñatibia-Astibia et al., 2016) . Though caffeine is primarily sourced from coffee beans, it is also found in certain varieties of tea and cacao beans. It is also used as an additive in soda and energy drinks. Prescription or over-the-counter drugs such as cold, allergy, and pain medications may also contain caffeine. Many weight-loss supplements also have caffeine (Petre, 2023) . Figure 1. Common sources of caffeine, with the amount of caffeine per serving (Lane, 2020) . How Caffeine Works in the Body Once caffeine is consumed, it gets absorbed by the gut which then flows into the bloodstream. Because caffeine is both water-soluble and fat-soluble, it travels easily in blood plasma and can cross the fatty membranes of the blood-brain barrier , a highly selective network of semi-permeable membranes that protects the central nervous system. After entering the brain, caffeine binds to adenosine receptors , blocking adenosine from attaching to them instead (Evans et al., 2024)  (Fig 2). Adenosine is a compound that normally promotes sleepiness and relaxation by slowing down neural activity. By preventing this process, caffeine increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and can improve concentration, reaction time, and even mood in the short term. Figure 2. Caffeine attaching to adenosine receptors and blocking adenosine (Jaeger, 2021) . Once in the body, caffeine is primarily broken down in the liver by an enzyme called CYP1A2 . This enzyme is responsible for metabolizing more than 90% of the caffeine consumed. Its activity helps determine how long caffeine stays in the body and how strong its effects are. The efficiency of CYP1A2 can influence everything from the intensity of stimulation to how soon someone may feel the need for another cup of coffee (Mahdavi et al., 2023) . The Genetics of Caffeine Sensitivity The CYP1A2 enzyme is responsible for the differences in how people respond to caffeine. Fast metabolizers break down caffeine quickly, meaning its effects wear off sooner. However, slow metabolizers process caffeine more slowly, leading to prolonged effects and a higher chance of side effects such as insomnia. Another important gene, ADORA2A, affects how the brain responds to caffeine by influencing the sensitivity of adenosine receptors. Genetic testing can reveal whether you have variants in these genes that impact your caffeine tolerance (Mégane Erblang et al., 2019) . Other factors like body weight, age, sex, and certain medications also influence how your body handles caffeine. Habitual caffeine intake can lead to tolerance, reducing its noticeable effects over time. Additionally, people with anxiety disorders or heart conditions may experience stronger negative reactions and are often advised to limit their caffeine intake (Liu et al., 2024) . Key Takeaways While caffeine offers benefits like increased alertness and improved focus, its effects can vary greatly from person to person. Factors such as genetics, enzyme activity, habitual use, and underlying health conditions all influence how caffeine is processed and tolerated. By understanding these variables, individuals can make more informed choices about their caffeine intake. References Erblang, M., Drogou, C., Gomez-Merino, D., Metlaine, A., Boland, A., Deleuze, J. F., Thomas, C., Sauvet, F., & Chennaoui, M. (2019). The Impact of Genetic Variations in ADORA2A in the Association between Caffeine Consumption and Sleep. Genes, 10(12), 1021. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10121021 Evans, J., Richards, J. R., & Battisti, A. S. (2025). Caffeine. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519490/ Gottwalt, B., & Tadi, P. (2025). Methylxanthines. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559165/ Jaeger, K. (2021, April 7). I Tried a Coffee Nap. Health in a Hurry. https://blogs.uww.edu/healthinahurry/2021/04/07/i-tried-a-coffee-nap/ Lane, A. (2020, February 12). Foods with Caffeine. Healthful Lane Nutrition. https://healthfullane.com/2020/02/12/foods-with-caffeine/ Liu, C., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Hu, Z., Tang, J., Xue, J., & Lu, W. (2024). Caffeine intake and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1270246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270246 Oñatibia-Astibia, A., Martínez-Pinilla, E., & Franco, R. (2016). The potential of methylxanthine-based therapies in pediatric respiratory tract diseases. Respiratory Medicine, 112, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2016.01.022 Petre, A. (2020, June 3). What Is Caffeine, and Is It Good or Bad for Health? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/what-is-caffeine

In the early 20th century, America was plagued. Not with disease but with nutritional deficiency, specifically iron deficiency. The population, at the time, had been suffering from widespread cases of iron deficiency anemia (Mitchell, 2024) , which is a condition where one's body cannot produce enough hemoglobin because of the lack of iron, leading to reduced oxygen delivery throughout the bloodstream and symptoms of dizziness, fatigue, and shortness or breath. With high rates of iron deficiency anemia throughout America in 1941, companies began looking for solutions (Niemesh, 2015) . The implementation a process called food fortification after World War II is largely considered a success in food systems and public health efforts, but are these efforts complete? How can we use food fortification to bolster our existing systems today? Figure 1: Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia and why it was such a pressing issue in the 1940s. The history of food fortification Food fortification is the process of adding vitamins, minerals, and other essential micronutrients into food to increase their nutritional value for public health purposes. The first instance of food fortification in the US was fortifying salt with iodine to compensate for iodine deficiencies within the population (Leung et al., 2012) . Later in the 1940s, when iron deficiency became a more u urgent public health issue, bread and flour products became a new target of interest. To expand from bread and flour products, people began to look for other alternatives (Whittaker et al., 2001) . Due to its convenience and presence in approximately 90% of consumer households, cereal was a logical choice for the next fortified food (Amidor, 2020) .  More recently, in 1996, the FDA administered regulations to enrich cereals with folic acid (Whittaker et al., 2001) , a synthetic form of the compound folate (“Folate”, 2012) which is essential in protein metabolism. Folic acid also plays key roles in producing healthy red blood cells, which is necessary for women during pregnancy and fetal development. These changes were implemented to reduce the chances of neural tube defects during pregnancy. Now, cereal has been fortified to also include various B vitamins, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, calcium, and zinc ( Fortified Cereals , n.d.) . Figure 2: Nutrition Facts of Honey Nut Cheerios. Note the percentages of each micronutrient, vitamin, and mineral. The process of fortifying cereal with iron To fortify cereal specifically for iron, non-heme iron is typically used. Non-heme iron is derived from plants and is commonly found in plant-based foods. It is not to be confused with heme iron which comes from animal products since it binds to animal proteins and muscular tissue. Non-heme iron can also be isolated from animal products, but that is only due to the fact that some animals consume plant sources (“Iron,” 2019) .  Non-heme iron makes up the majority of western diets, approximately 85-90%. Unlike heme iron, it is less easily absorbed into the body, but it can be enhanced with the consumption of vitamin C, perfect when drinking a glass of orange juice, for example (Tan, 2017) . The specific form of non-heme iron is typically found in the form of ferrous sulfate or electrolytic iron that is added during manufacturing of the cereal. These compounds are mixed into the dough before being shaped and baked (Rabinowitz, 2025) . Using non-heme is also stable, cost-effective, and easy to incorporate into processed foods without altering their texture (Panoff, 2024) . Figure 3: Schematic of how flour products are fortified. Downsides to Fortified Cereal Although fortified cereal provides necessary nutrients as opposed to unfortified cereals, people should still cautiously consume them. One study conducted in 2001 by Whittaker et al.  found that the majority of cereal brands contain more than the labeled percentages of both folic acid and dietary iron (Whittaker et al., 2001) . And, with most consumers eating more than one serving size per day, they may be at risk for overconsuming these nutrients. Eating cautiously and in moderation is the best way to prevent excessive intake. Cereals also tend to be high in added sugars. In fact, according to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, breakfast cereals are one of the highest sources of added sugar in an American’s diet. Additionally, because of the additional processing fortification brings, most cereals are low in fiber, which is necessary for healthy digestion (Foley, 2026) . This poses the question, can cereal fortification only come at the expense of exacerbating other nutritional needs? In addition, one study demonstrated that calcium may inhibit how much non-heme iron is taken up. With milk as a high source of calcium, cereal paired with milk may not be conducive to optimal iron absorption in the intestinal lining. In a paper written by Lönnerdal, a researcher at the University of California-Davis in 2010, it is mentioned that calcium binds to the same protein—called the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) —as non-heme iron and engages in competition or interference. If calcium binds the DMT1 protein first, then the non-heme iron cannot, and therefore, non-heme iron has a harder time being absorbed by intestinal cells. Figure 4: Iron uptake by enterocytes (intestinal absorptive cells). The process by which dietary iron (Fe) is absorbed into the cell through the DMT1 protein. If calcium was present, it could take up the space in the DMT1 receptor that the iron binds to, rendering iron absorption more difficult. Towards the end of the study, the study speculates that calcium inhibition may only be short-term, and show no concern to long-term effects (Lönnerdal, 2010) ; however, another study from 2011 observed that calcium may cause greater inhibition when consumed in more than 800mg or the equivalent of milk in about 2.5 servings of cereal (Gaitán et al., 2011) . If even the most obvious confounding variable, milk, can obstruct the initial purpose of fortified cereal, what are other factors influencing iron absorption that have not been considered yet?  Key Takeaways Fortified cereal is a primary example of how the food systems that can be redesigned to benefit public health are oftentimes also imperfect and incomplete. Although the government was future-oriented to recognize iron deficiency as an urgent public health crisis, was it executed well? Are there ways to fortify food without drawbacks? Can we improve how cereal delivers nutrients without raising added sugars or diminishing fiber? What are other factors that nutrition-related aspects fortification may have negatively impacted? Are there other foods capable of being fortified? Cereal serves as just one example of the questions that researchers, manufacturers, and public health experts still need to consider. The question of possibility still lies ahead, but with active engagement, knowledge, and innovation, there may be a future where food fortification will be beneficial, sustainable, and without the negative side effects seen now. References Amidor, T. (2020, March 16). Cereals and Fortified Nutrients: What You Need to Know About the Changing Levels . US News & World Report. https://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/eat-run/articles/cereals-and-fortified-nutrients Folate (Folic Acid)—Vitamin B9 • The Nutrition Source. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/folic-acid/ Foley, J. (2026, May 5). What Is Fortified Cereal? Benefits, Drawbacks, and How to Choose—GoodRx . GoodRx. https://www.goodrx.com/well-being/diet-nutrition/what-is-fortified-cereal Fortified Cereals—Vitamins and Minerals . (n.d.). Nestlé Cereals. Retrieved February 8, 2026, from https://www.nestle-cereals.com/mena/me-en/nutrition/fortification Gaitán, D., Flores, S., Saavedra, P., Miranda, C., Olivares, M., Arredondo, M., López de Romaña, D., Lönnerdal, B., & Pizarro, F. (2011). Calcium does not inhibit the absorption of 5 milligrams of nonheme or heme iron at doses less than 800 milligrams in nonpregnant women. The Journal of Nutrition , 141 (9), 1652–1656. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.138651 Iron. (2019, September 16). The Nutrition Source . https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/iron/ Leung, A. M., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N. (2012). History of U.S. Iodine Fortification and Supplementation. Nutrients , 4 (11), 1740–1746. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4111740 Lönnerdal, B. (2010). Calcium and Iron Absorption—Mechanisms and Public Health Relevance. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research , 80 (45), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000036 Mitchell, K. (2024, February 23). Iron Deficiency Anemia (Low Iron): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment . WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/iron-deficiency-anemia Niemesh, G. T. (2015). Ironing Out Deficiencies: Evidence from the United States on the Economic Effects of Iron Deficiency. Journal of Human Resources , 50 (4), 910–958. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.50.4.910 Panoff, L. (2024, May 31). Iron in Baby Cereal: Best Uses, Safety, and the...  Else Nutrition. https://elsenutrition.com/a/resources/nutrition/iron-in-baby-cereal-importance Rabinowitz. (2025, September 25). High Iron Cereal & Iron Fortified Cereals . Smart Eats. https://smarteatspantry.com/blogs/iron/guide-to-iron-fortified-cereals Tan, V. (2017, June 3). How to Increase the Absorption of Iron from Foods  [4/24/2023]. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/increase-iron-absorption Whittaker, P., Tufaro, P. R., & Rader, J. I. (2001). Iron and folate in fortified cereals. Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 20 (3), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2001.10719039 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Rachel Linder from Eat this, Not That!

Some of the most consumed herbs and spices were popularized due to their medicinal  properties. Turmeric, for example, was first used in India over 4000 years ago in a system of holistic medicine called Ayurveda. This versatile spice was used to improve digestion, relieve arthritis, to inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms, etc. It was uncovered in its chemical composition that turmeric contains the compound curcumin, which is known to inhibit signal transduction pathways responsible for tumor growth. It has demonstrated promising efficacy in treating cancer, diabetes, metabolic syndromes and some neurological disorders in a clinical study with a diverse trial group (Kunnumakkara et al., 2023). Even today, it still has the same roles in medicine and food, as a common supplement or in meals as turmeric powder (Kato, 2025) . There are hundreds of examples like turmeric of plants which are known not just for their taste, but their health benefits too. This article explores the journey of medicine from these plants in their purest form to the pills we consume daily.  Figure 1: Display of tumeric   Evolution of therapeutical herbs   The first known written record of medicinal herbs comes from a Sumerian clay tablet from 2600 BCE. It listed over 250 plants used in different herbal recipes (Norman, 2009) .   Medicine back then was based on trial and error, and knowledge was mostly passed down by word of mouth. Herbal remedies were also closely tied to religion and spirituality—healers or shamans would often give out plant-based treatments during ceremonies. In the Middle Ages, herbal medicine started becoming more organized. Monasteries in Europe grew herb gardens and began documenting how different plants were used. But even then, a lot of it was still mixed with superstition (Hajar, 2012) . Later on, in the 19th century, scientists started isolating the actual compounds in herbs, which helped make stronger and more targeted remedies. This shift eventually led to herbal medicine being used less, but many of those same plants are still part of food today just in new forms, like teas, powders, oils, or supplements.  Figure 2. A juxtoposition of modern medicine and medicinal herbs. Modern uses of herbal medicine in food Although herbal treatments aren’t common, the benefits of adding spices to diets has  been thoroughly studied. A few examples are how cinnamon can lower blood sugar,  turmeric can reduce inflammation, and ginger can help relieve nausea (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2025 ) .   These spices were used thousands of years ago, for these same benefits, and modern studies have shown that these truly improve health. You eat these herbs and spices every day, so with every bite, remember the powerful impact they can have on your health. References  5 Spices with Healthy Benefits . (2024, June 20). John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/5-spices-with-healthy-benefits Hajar, R. (2012). The Air of History (Part II) Medicine in the Middle Ages. Heart Views : The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association , 13 (4), 158–162. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-705X.105744 Kato, J., & University Researchcentre, K. I. (2025). The Evolution of Herbal Medicine: From Traditional Practices to Scientific Validation. Eurasian Experiment Journal of Biological Sciences , 6 (11), 10–17. Kunnumakkara, A. B., Hegde, M., Parama, D., Girisa, S., Kumar, A., Daimary, U. D., Garodia, P., Yenisetti, S. C., Oommen, O. V., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2023). Role of Turmeric and Curcumin in Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases: Lessons Learned from Clinical Trials. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science , 6 (4), 447–518. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.2c00012 The Largest Surviving Medical Treatise from Ancient Mesopotamia: History of Information . (n.d.). Jeremy Norman’s History of Information. Retrieved January 31, 2026, from https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2155 Thumbnail image: Courtesy of Sarah Shwager

In labs around the world, scientists have been growing real meat without raising animals, which is called cultivated meat. As global meat demand is expected to increase by 73% from 2010 to 2050, cultivated meat can address challenges in sustainability, ethics, and food safety ( Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011) . From Cells to Meat Scientists first take a small sample, or biopsy, from a living animal and isolate muscle stem cells. These cells are then cultured in bioreactors filled with media containing proteins, vitamins, and growth factors that encourage cellular reproduction (Good Food Institute, n.d.) . Figure 1. A bioreactor by Ark Biotech designed specifically for cultivated meat (Houser, 2024) . The cells are grown on an edible scaffold that structurally supports their assembly and is responsible for the final texture of the meat. The scaffold provides the cells with oxygen and nutrients. Bioengineers typically design scaffolds to resemble the structural and biochemical properties of the extracellular matrix, which supports the cells in natural tissues (Levi et al., 2022) . Advantages Cultivated meat solves problems across many areas. Environmentally, it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 78-96%, water consumption by 82-96%, and land use by 99% compared to conventional meat production (Tuomisto & de Mattos, 2011) . Ethically, it eliminates the need for animal slaughter while reducing suffering, as animals would only provide the initial biopsies through minimally invasive procedures. From a food safety perspective, production in sterile, controlled environments dramatically reduces contamination risks from pathogens like E. coli  or Salmonella   (Powell et al., 2024) . Additionally, scientists may eventually customize fat and protein content or modify the composition in other ways, potentially creating healthier meat products (Heid, 2016) . Industry Outlook Currently, the cost of production is high, resulting in products more expensive than traditional meat. One reason for this being the cell culture media and scaffolds are difficult and expensive to obtain for producers. The first lab-grown beef burger in 2013 cost $325,000 to produce, though production costs have been decreasing. As of 2023, lab-grown beef costs an average of $17 per pound to produce. Additionally, despite advances in technology, cultivated meat still differs from conventional meat in taste and texture. Many consumers also consider lab-grown meat to be unnatural, with 50% of respondents in a June 2023 survey indicating they were not interested in trying cultivated meat (Fabino, 2023) . Figure 2. The first lab-grown beef burger, cooked with butter and sunflower oil (Jha, 2013) . In 2023, there were 156 companies worldwide involved in the cultivated meat industry. Two countries, the United States and Singapore, allow for the sale of cultivated meat (Benson & Greene, 2023) . Still, there are significant challenges in its commercialization, both in the technology and in its perception by consumers. Key takeaways Cultivated meat integrates biotechnology and food science to possibly address major global challenges. However, technical, economic, and consumer acceptance barriers suggest it may be years before cultivated meat becomes mainstream. For now, cultivated meat remains more dormant in the field of experimental technology. References Ahuja, V., Brinkley, C., Gerosa, S., Henderson, B., Honhold, N., Kramer, S., Makkar, H., McLeod, A., Miers, H., Muehlhoff, E., C., O., Opio, C., Rosenthal, J., Slingenbergh, J., Starkey, P., Steinfeld, H., & Tasciotti, L. (2011). World Livestock 2011 Livestock in food security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . Cell-Cultivated Meat: An Overview . (n.d.). [Legislation]. Congress.Gov . Retrieved January 24, 2026, from https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47697 Fabino, A. (2023, October 17). Lab-Grown Meat Prices Expected to Drop Dramatically—Newsweek . Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/lab-grown-meat-cost-drop-2030-investment-surge-alternative-protein-market-1835432 Heid, M. (2016, September 14). You Asked: Should I Be Nervous About Lab-Grown Meat?  TIME. https://time.com/4490128/artificial-meat-protein/ Houser, K. (2024, April 26). This startup is trying to solve lab-grown meat’s biggest problem. Freethink . https://www.freethink.com/science/bioreactor-cultivated-meat Jha, A., & correspondent, science. (2013, August 6). First lab-grown hamburger gets full marks for “mouth feel.” The Guardian . https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/05/world-first-synthetic-hamburger-mouth-feel Levi, S., Yen, F.-C., Baruch, L., & Machluf, M. (2022, August). Scaffolding technologies for the engineering of cultured meat: Towards a safe, sustainable, and scalable production—ScienceDirect . ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224422001790?via%3Dihub Powell, D. J., Li, D., Smith, B., & Chen, W. N. (2025). Cultivated meat microbiological safety considerations and practices. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 24 (1), e70077. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.70077 The science of cultivated meat | GFI . (2021, January 27). https://gfi.org/science/the-science-of-cultivated-meat/ Tuomisto, H. L., & de Mattos, M. J. T. (2011). Environmental impacts of cultured meat production. Environmental Science & Technology , 45 (14), 6117–6123. https://doi.org/10.1021/es200130u Thumbnail image: (Jha, 2013)

As soon as the clock strikes 2 p.m., time seems to slow, my movements appear more sluggish, energy levels plummet, and all I want to do is go to sleep. To many people, especially other high school students around me, the usual afternoon crash or post-lunch drowsiness may seem typical. But, what if I told you that recent research has demonstrated the lack of a single molecule called butyrate may be responsible for these dips in energy, and increasing its production can lead to steady energy throughout the day. Introducing Butyrate Butyrate  is a short-chain fatty acid produced by microbes within our gut microbiome typically in our lower intestinal tract near our colon. In the colon, microbes metabolize soluble fibers and resistant starches that we eat and ferment them. During fermentation, the microbes convert acetyl-CoA into butyryl-CoA, which can then be transformed into butyrate (Esquivel-Elizondo et al., 2017) . Figure 1. Cycle of Acetyl CoA --> Butyryl CoA --> Butyrate. How our Body Uses Butyrate Since butyrate is produced in the lower intestinal tract, our colon cells can use the compound as energy. In fact, butyrate is the preferred energy source for colon cells, even over glucose. When colonic epithelial cells metabolize butyrate, they are able to produce mucin , a substance that lines the gut and is critical for intestinal defense. In addition to protecting the intestinal lining, butyrate also has anti-inflammatory effects that contribute to preventing colon-related diseases such as ulcerative colitis , chronic inflammation that is characterized by ulcers forming on the colon and rectum, and colorectal cancer   (Esquivel-Elizondo et al., 2017) , which is unfortunately increasing among younger adults (Masciadrelli, 2023) . In the short term, butyrate can also increase insulin sensitivity , lowering glucose spikes after eating large meals (like lunch), and promote steadier, consistent energy throughout the day instead of crashes. Figure 2. Closeup of the mucous barrier that serves as an essential component of intestinal defense and health. Negative Effects of Too Little Butyrate If butyrate is lower in concentration, colonic cells have less fuel to work with, leading to less production of the intestinal mucus, and an increased risk of  leaky gut , which can cause various undesirable symptoms such as bacterial toxins entering the bloodstream, inflammatory response like brain fog, fatigue and joint aches, food sensitivities, skin issues, and headaches (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . How Can We Promote the Production of Butyrate With all of the negative effects of not having enough butyrate, this poses the question of how we can generate sufficient amounts of butyrate to function optimally. As mentioned before, butyrate is produced by specific types of microbes—Firmicutes bacteria being a prime example ( Kalkan et al., 2025 ) —which feed off of resistant starches and fiber , or carbohydrates consumed that remain undigested while passing through the small intestine into the large intestine. Ingesting food high in these dietary fibers can improve butyrate production. Some examples of foods high in resistant starches and fiber include berries, whole grains like oats and quinoa, beans, chickpeas, apples, sweet potatoes, broccoli, asparagus, and sweet potatoes (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . Additionally, omega-3 fatty acids  have also correlated to promoting growth of butyrate-producing bacteria while suppressing the growth of harmful bacteria ( Salsinha et al., 2025) . To consume more omega-3 fatty acids, common sources include salmon and sardines while plant-based options include chia seeds, seaweed, and walnuts (Leonid Kim MD, 2025) . Figure 3. Array of foods high in resistant fiber and starch and omega-3 fatty acids. Key Takeaways While researchers have yet to conduct further studies to demonstrate the efficacy of butyrate in randomized human trials, various studies have supported the essential role of butyrate in maintaining a healthy lower intestinal tract, which can impact a wide variety of bodily processes such as insulin selectivity in the short term to disease prevention long term. While butyrate is just one example of how important it is to nurture a healthy gut microbiome by consuming enough dietary fiber and resistant starch, learning more about how we can foster healthy diet habits can improve our daily lives, starting with one less 2 p.m., post-lunch energy crash. References Esquivel-Elizondo, S., Ilhan, Z. E., Garcia-Peña, E. I., & Krajmalnik-Brown, R. (2017). Insights into Butyrate Production in a Controlled Fermentation System via Gene Predictions. mSystems , 2 (4), 10.1128/msystems.00051-17. https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00051-17 Grondin, J. A., Kwon, Y. H., Far, P. M., Haq, S., & Khan, W. I. (2020). Mucins in Intestinal Mucosal Defense and Inflammation: Learning From Clinical and Experimental Studies. Frontiers in Immunology , 11 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.02054 Kalkan, A. E., BinMowyna, M. N., Raposo, A., Ahmad, M. F., Ahmed, F., Otayf, A. Y., Carrascosa, C., Saraiva, A., & Karav, S. (2025). Beyond the Gut: Unveiling Butyrate’s Global Health Impact Through Gut Health and Dysbiosis-Related Conditions: A Narrative Review. Nutrients , 17 (8), 1305. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081305 Leonid Kim MD (Director). (2025, December 23). Butyrate: Protect Your Brain, Lower Blood Sugar and Fix Leaky Gut  [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8Qj2Vc0iNE Masciadrelli, M. (2023, March 29). Why Are Colorectal Cancer Rates Rising Among Younger Adults?  Yale School of Medicine.   https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/with-colorectal-cancer-rates-rising-among-younger-adults-a-yale-cancer-center-expert-explains-there-may-be-more-factors-behind-this-worrisome-trend/ Salsinha, A. S., Araújo-Rodrigues, H., Dias, C., Cima, A., Rodríguez-Alcalá, L. M., Relvas, J. B., & Pintado, M. (2025). Omega-3 and conjugated fatty acids impact on human microbiota modulation using an in vitro  fecal fermentation model. Clinical Nutrition , 49 , 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.04.007 Thumbnail image: Leschelle et al. 2000

Everyone has heard the saying "breakfast is the most important meal of the day," and there is truth behind it. In fact, people who regularly skip breakfast are 21% more likely to suffer from a cardiovascular disease event (Ofori-Asenso et al., 2019) . Meal-skipping has become more prominent over the last 40 years, as the average person has become increasingly busier. There has been a transition away from 3 set meals a day to snacking and varied mealtimes (Kant and Graubard, 2016) .  Additionally, when trying to improve health through food, few pay attention to or reduce unhealthy food habits related to the timing of meals. Instead, many focus solely on the content of their meals. Bad meal timing, specifically a schedule that isn’t matched to a person’s circadian rhythm, has surprisingly many consequences. This article explores why and how eating at the ‘wrong’ time impacts health, and how to reduce this impact. (Ferreira, 2019) Circadian Eating Rhythm What determines when the body is best primed to eat? It’s the body’s internal clock, the circadian rhythm , which determines sleep-cycles, hormone regulation, and digestion. A person’s unique circadian clock is determined by their exposure to light, which could be the sun or artificial light. When someone stays up late or wakes up early in the morning, their circadian clock is not aligned with light and will adjust over time. Timing of meals is so important, because all digestive organs have their own internal clocks, working more efficiently during the day, peaking on average around noon, and slowing down into the night. Additionally, the hormones released throughout the day, like insulin , ghrelin , and leptin , which manage sugar levels, hunger, and fullness, are all regulated by the circadian rhythm ("Circadian Rhythm", 2024)  The body prepares itself to eat during a certain period during the day and disrupting its natural timeline means the body undergoes increased strain during the digestive process.  (Smith, 2016) When Should You Eat? Generally, eating during the day while the body is naturally ready for it is considered the healthiest. However, there are still many meal timing structures that one can use depending on their goals. One of the most popular of these is time restricted eating or intermittent fasting . There are many variations of these including eating all meals in an early 8 hour window, restricting calorie intake 2 of the 7 days of the week, alternate day fasting, etc. (Snyder, 2023) .  These methods have been extremely successful in weight-loss, as the body has a higher metabolism and is more insulin-sensitive in the morning and afternoon so less fat is stored, blood sugar levels are controlled, and energy usage of food is more efficient. (Lee et al., 2024) . Also, as all these eating patterns focus on eating earlier in the day, the digestive system does not need to work during the night and sleep quality is improved. Key Takeaways The human body is built to eat meals at certain time periods throughout the day based on its circadian rhythm. The exact time of meals depends from person to person and it can be optimized by experimenting with different meal timings and seeing what feels the best. Although eating a late-night meal or skipping breakfast once won’t permanently damage you, doing so over a period of months and years will increase the risk of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Next time you’re planning a meal, remember it's not just what you eat that matters, but also when you eat it. References Circadian Rhythm . (2024). Cleveland Clinic.   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/circadian-rhythm Ferreira, Â. (2019, July 26). Meal timing and weight loss: Is there a relationship? Blog Oficial Zumub.Com .   https://www.zumub.com/blog/en/meal-timing-weight-loss-relationship/ Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2015). 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics , 115 (1), 50–63.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.354 Lee, D. Y., Jung, I., Park, S. Y., Yu, J. H., Kim, K. J., Kim, N. H., Yoo, H. J., Kim, S. G., Choi, K. M., Baik, S. H., & Kim, N. H. (n.d.). Attention to Innate Circadian Rhythm and the Impact of Its Disruption on Diabetes . Retrieved July 20, 2025, from   https://www.e-dmj.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.4093%2Fdmj.2023.0193 Ofori-Asenso, R., Owen, A. J., & Liew, D. (2019). Skipping Breakfast and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Death: A Systematic Review of Prospective Cohort Studies in Primary Prevention Settings. Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease , 6 (3), 30.   https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd6030030 Smith, Y. (2016, March 6). What is the Circadian Rhythm?  News-Medical.   https://www.news-medical.net/health/Circadian-Rhythm.aspx Snyder, C. (2023, June 21). Intermittent Fasting Methods Reviewed: Pros and Cons . Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/6-ways-to-do-intermittent-fasting Thumbnail image: Rudie Strummer

High cholesterol levels are associated with illnesses such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. This has caused a negative stigma around consuming cholesterol, with many diets and health regimens focusing on specifically cutting out this molecule. Yet, it is present in and essential for animal cells; the body produces cholesterol to help regulate the functions of many organs. So, what is cholesterol and why is too much of it dangerous? Foods with high levels of cholesterol (D'Angelo Friedman, 2025) . What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a lipophilic molecule : it combines with lipids and travels through the bloodstream in large molecules called lipoproteins . There are a few types of cholesterol which are classified by what type of lipoprotein they travel with. The most common of these are HDL and LDL cholesterol (what is known as good and bad cholesterol, respectively). HDL cholesterol is considered ‘good’ because it removes the ‘bad’ LDL cholesterol which, in excess, causes plaque build-ups in the arteries. It is important to note that both HDL and LDL cholesterol are necessary; cholesterol is a required for the synthesis of Vitamin D, sex and steroid hormones, and the production of bile in the liver. The liver produces 80% of the cholesterol needed to function, while the rest comes from food intake (What is Cholesterol?, 2025) . Major cholesterol sources are foods with saturated fat (e.g. red meat) or trans-fat (packaged and fried foods) (Friedman, 2025) .  Every year there is increased processed and packaged food intake, leading to increased cholesterol levels. That’s why it is so important to have a balanced diet and avoid the dangers of too much cholesterol.  HDL vs. LDL cholesterol impact on arteries ("What is Cholesterol", 2025) . Impact of cholesterol imbalances The body naturally regulates cholesterol levels by slowing production when higher levels are present. This negative feedback has limits though, which can be reached when food intake spikes cholesterol levels. When a person has high cholesterol, excess lipids form plaque in the arteries (Alila Medical Media, 2018) . This plaque can build up over the years, having seemingly no effect on health. When the arteries are significantly clogged or blocked, they stop working efficiently, putting strain on the heart. High cholesterol levels, over time, are associated with many illnesses, most notably cardiovascular disease. Key Takeaways Cholesterol is vital for many bodily functions and is present in every cell of the body. Although it is necessary, too much of anything is bad for you. High cholesterol levels are common in the US, and dangerous as it leads to many illnesses. By making healthy food choices and getting regular screenings, people can manage their cholesterol and reduce their risk of heart disease. References Alila Medical Media (Director). (2018, May 1). Cholesterol Metabolism, LDL, HDL and other Lipoproteins, Animation  [Video recording].  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9dghtf7Z7fw Blood Cholesterol—What is Blood Cholesterol?  (2024, April 17). National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.   https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/blood-cholesterol D’Angelo Friedman, J. (2025, April 11). Foods To Eat & Avoid For High Cholesterol . HealthCentral.   https://www.healthcentral.com/condition/high-cholesterol/high-cholesterol-foods Huff, T., Boyd, B., & Jialal, I. (2025). Physiology, Cholesterol. In StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470561/ Hughes, A. (2025, May 10). Here’s what actually causes high cholesterol (and how to cut it) . BBC Science Focus Magazine. https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/how-to-lower-cholesterol LeWine, H. E. (2010, April 6). 11 Foods that Lower Cholesterol—Harvard Health Publishing . Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/11-foods-that-lower-cholesterol What Is Cholesterol?  (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/23922-what-is-cholesterol HDL (Good), LDL (Bad) Cholesterol and Triglycerides . (2024, February 19). American Heart Association. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/cholesterol/hdl-good-ldl-bad-cholesterol-and-triglycerides Thumbnail image: (Hughes, 2025)

As people become more conscious of what food is going into their body, measuring macronutrients, micronutrients, and calories has become increasingly popular. Most packaged foods in the United States carry labels providing such nutritional information on their label. At the back of the packaging is the Nutrition Facts Label which has an important component displayed - the serving size. The best way to interpret how much nutrition you are consuming requires us to understand the typical serving size each individual has consumed of that food product. Based on how many serving sizes you eat, you can calculate how much nutritional value you have consumed as indicated on the label. (Feller, 2025) What is a "Serving Size" and who calculates it? In the United States, the FDA oversees how much food makes up a serving size — a quantity that is highly dependent on what type of food it is. The FDA explains, "Serving sizes must be based on the amount of food people typically consume, rather than how much they should consume. Serving sizes reflect the amount people typically eat and drink” ("Serving Size", 2024) . The FDA uses the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to estimate the amount of each food the average American, eats in one sitting. This survey, run by the CDC, runs interviews, physical exams, and laboratory tests, collecting data from randomly selected people to better understand everything regarding their health. These serving sizes are simply the averages of the survey's results, an approximation of how much each person eats in one sitting ("About NHANES", 2024) .  It’s important to understand that the serving size is not a recommendation of how much to eat, but just a standard unit of measure for all foods.  Why is Serving Size So Important? The serving size is so useful because it allows people to compare similar products, and it gives context to all the numbers on the nutritional label. By using this unit of measure, people can easily compare products to determine which is healthier, offers more protein, or better meets their nutritional needs, allowing them to make smarter, more informed choices about what they eat ( Food Portions , 2021) . (Falkenheimer, 2021) Key Takeaways For us to regulate our food intake, it is important to understand the food labels and specifically serving sizes. With obesity and diabetes on the rise due to the addictive nature of certain foods, we should limit our consumption and monitor the effects of unhealthy foods. Serving size allows us to connect how much food we consume with the various nutritional measures of it, giving us a quantitative understanding of the quality and amount of food we eat. References CDC. (2024, December 18). About NHANES . National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.   https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about/index.html Falkenheimer, A. (2021, August 18). Compare Serving Sizes—Easy Food Health Decisions. Eatiquette .   https://eatiquette.io/compare-food-serving-sizes/ Feller, M. (2025, January 24). I’m a Registered Dietitian, and These Are the Only Things I Look for on Nutrition Facts Labels . Kitchn.   https://www.thekitchn.com/how-to-read-nutrition-facts-label-23705776 Food Portions: Choosing Just Enough for You - NIDDK . (2021, July). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.   https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/just-enough-food-portions Serving Size on the Nutrition Facts Label. (2024). FDA .   https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/serving-size-nutrition-facts-label