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As people become more conscious of what food is going into their body, measuring macronutrients, micronutrients, and calories has become increasingly popular. Most packaged foods in the United States carry labels providing such nutritional information on their label. At the back of the packaging is the Nutrition Facts Label which has an important component displayed - the serving size. The best way to interpret how much nutrition you are consuming requires us to understand the typical serving size each individual has consumed of that food product. Based on how many serving sizes you eat, you can calculate how much nutritional value you have consumed as indicated on the label. (Feller, 2025) What is a "Serving Size" and who calculates it? In the United States, the FDA oversees how much food makes up a serving size — a quantity that is highly dependent on what type of food it is. The FDA explains, "Serving sizes must be based on the amount of food people typically consume, rather than how much they should consume. Serving sizes reflect the amount people typically eat and drink” ("Serving Size", 2024) . The FDA uses the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to estimate the amount of each food the average American, eats in one sitting. This survey, run by the CDC, runs interviews, physical exams, and laboratory tests, collecting data from randomly selected people to better understand everything regarding their health. These serving sizes are simply the averages of the survey's results, an approximation of how much each person eats in one sitting ("About NHANES", 2024) .  It’s important to understand that the serving size is not a recommendation of how much to eat, but just a standard unit of measure for all foods.  Why is Serving Size So Important? The serving size is so useful because it allows people to compare similar products, and it gives context to all the numbers on the nutritional label. By using this unit of measure, people can easily compare products to determine which is healthier, offers more protein, or better meets their nutritional needs, allowing them to make smarter, more informed choices about what they eat ( Food Portions , 2021) . (Falkenheimer, 2021) Key Takeaways For us to regulate our food intake, it is important to understand the food labels and specifically serving sizes. With obesity and diabetes on the rise due to the addictive nature of certain foods, we should limit our consumption and monitor the effects of unhealthy foods. Serving size allows us to connect how much food we consume with the various nutritional measures of it, giving us a quantitative understanding of the quality and amount of food we eat. References CDC. (2024, December 18). About NHANES . National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.   https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about/index.html Falkenheimer, A. (2021, August 18). Compare Serving Sizes—Easy Food Health Decisions. Eatiquette .   https://eatiquette.io/compare-food-serving-sizes/ Feller, M. (2025, January 24). I’m a Registered Dietitian, and These Are the Only Things I Look for on Nutrition Facts Labels . Kitchn.   https://www.thekitchn.com/how-to-read-nutrition-facts-label-23705776 Food Portions: Choosing Just Enough for You - NIDDK . (2021, July). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.   https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/just-enough-food-portions Serving Size on the Nutrition Facts Label. (2024). FDA .   https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/serving-size-nutrition-facts-label

Have you ever felt bloated, gassy, or uncomfortable after enjoying a scoop of ice cream or an extra cheesy pizza? These are all common symptoms of lactose intolerance, a condition that makes it difficult for people to digest milk and dairy products. Though lactose intolerance is not necessarily dangerous, living with it can be very inconvenient. Luckily, science has created ways to relieve discomfort that comes along with intolerance. Causes Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down lactose, which is a sugar found in dairy products. Lactase splits lactose into two sugars: glucose and galactose. These sugars are then easily absorbed by the bowel ( LACTASE: Uses, Side Effects, and More , 2020) . Figure 1. Structural diagram of lactase splitting lactose into glucose and galactose (Kohlmeier, 2013) . To digest breast milk, infants produce large amounts of lactase. As the child is weaned off breast milk and baby formula, the child’s digestive system adapts to digest other foods. For some people, this means they no longer produce enough lactase to adequately process foods containing lactose, known as primary lactase deficiency (Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care [IQWiG], 2024) . This kind of lactose intolerance is more common in people of African and Asian descent, a phenomenon attributed to the different lifestyles of their ancestors. A Cornell University study found that people whose ancestors could raise dairy herds safely and economically tend to be able to digest milk. People whose ancestors lived in extreme climates or regions with deadly cattle diseases often lose the ability to digest milk after infancy. For this reason, up to 75% of African Americans and American Indians and 90% of Asian Americans are lactose intolerant (Lang, 2005) . Other people develop secondary lactase deficiency, which is a bowel disease resulting in reduced lactase production. This disease is often caused by celiac disease or inflammation in the small intestine, like in Crohn’s disease (IQWiG, 2024) . Diagnosis and Symptoms The most common method to test for lactose intolerance is the hydrogen breath test. For this test, the patient consumes a liquid containing large amounts of lactose. The patient’s breath is then checked repeatedly for high levels of hydrogen, which indicate lactose intolerance. Another method, called the lactose intolerance test, checks how a patient’s digestive system absorbs lactose. After drinking a liquid containing lactose, the patient will have their blood sugar taken over a two-hour period. If the patient’s blood sugar levels remain the same, then they are most likely lactose intolerant (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.) . Having enough lactase would allow the lactose to be broken down into glucose, raising the patient’s blood sugar level. For infants and small children, their stools are tested for fatty acids, which indicate lactose intolerance. Figure 2. A patient undergoing a hydrogen breath test (Rocky Mountain Gastroenterology, n.d.) . Symptoms of lactose intolerance begin thirty minutes to two hours after consuming foods with lactose. They may include stomach cramps, nausea, bloating, gas, and diarrhea, but they vary across individuals. Their severity depends on the amount of lactose consumed and the amount of lactase produced by the body (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d. ) . Living with Lactose Intolerance To manage lactose intolerance, people should avoid not only dairy products but also certain canned, frozen, and prepared foods. Lactose is added to processed foods such as bread, cereal, and salad dressings (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.) . Lactose-intolerant people can also take lactase tablets before consuming foods with lactose or add lactase drops to drinks (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2018) . Dairy-free milk alternatives, such as oat milk, almond milk, and soy milk, allow people to enjoy typical milk-based products without the discomfort caused by lactose. Figure 3. Lactaid pills to manage lactose intolerance (LACTAID ® , n.d.) . Key Takeaways Lactose intolerance is a common condition resulting from inadequate production of lactase by the body. Its prevalence in certain ethnicities can be explained by the diets of early human populations. Fortunately, lactase tablets and dairy alternatives have made it easier for people to enjoy their favorite foods without pain. Of course, there are many lactose-intolerant people who decide that any discomfort is worth it for the chance to enjoy ice cream, cheese, or a latte—at least every once in a while. References Hydrogen Breath Test Services in the Denver Metro. (n.d.). Rocky Mountain Gastroenterology . Retrieved August 16, 2025, from  https://www.rockymountaingastro.com/services/hydrogen-breath-test/ Kohlmeier, M. (2013). Lactase—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics . ScienceDirect.   https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/lactase LACTAID® Original Strength Caplets for Lactose Intolerance . (n.d.). Lactaid. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.lactaid.com/products/lactaid-original-strength-caplets LACTASE: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews . (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-540/lactase Lactose Intolerance . (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/lactose-intolerance Lactose intolerance: Learn More – Causes and diagnosis of lactose intolerance. (2024). In InformedHealth.org . Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG).   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310263/ Lang, S. S. (2005, June 1). Lactose intolerance seems linked to ancestral struggles with harsh climate and cattle diseases, Cornell study finds | Cornell Chronicle . Cornell Chronicle.   https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2005/06/lactose-intolerance-linked-ancestral-struggles-climate-diseases Treatment for Lactose Intolerance—NIDDK . (n.d.). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Retrieved August 16, 2025, from   https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance/treatment

A seasoned professor and researcher in Food Science and Technology at University of California-Davis, Dr. Daniela Barile has made and continues to make waves in the field. She primarily studies the chemical composition of certain foods and their connection to promoting gut health. With her hard-working team, she has conducted a plethora of research on food products like wine, milk, and plant-based foods. Dr. Barile’s work not only highlights nutritional value in previously conceived food waste, but also provides avenues for how to repurpose them to improve health in the future. What Drew Dr. Barile to Food Science? Dr. Barile originally had no intention of pursuing food science. Instead, she studied pharmaceutical chemistry at University of Piemonte Orientale in Novara, Italy, originally aspiring to find a pharmacological cure for cancer. After achieving her Masters degree, she started working in a pharmacy. However, Dr. Barile soon realized that the prevailing pharmaceutical model emphasized statins and other medications, leaving less space for preventive or lifestyle-based approaches. Statins are drugs used to lower cholesterol for patients with or susceptible to cardiovascular diseases (“Statins”, n.d.) , and like many medications  also have side effects. When she realized that a lot of the conditions that the pharmaceutical industry pushed to be treated with prescription medications were often diet-related, Dr. Barile re-evaluated her career in pharmaceutics. Dr. Barile quotes, “working in the pharmacy is what opened my eyes to the medicines that patients were coming in to purchase, for conditions that could have been prevented with diet and exercise.” It was her realization that sparked her exploration of the food science world, particularly in what consumers are eating and how food impacts health. Using her newfound knowledge and drive to learn more about the science of food, she returned to the University of Piemonte Orientale to pursue a Ph.D. degree in food bioactive compounds , which are non-essential components of food that can regulate metabolic activity, biochemical processes, and physiological functions. Because of these properties, bioactive compounds are an emerging subject of study due to their ability to induce health benefits beyond typical nutritional value (Teodoro, 2019) .  Figure 1. A Chart of the Categories of Food Bioactive Compounds (Câmara et al., 2021) . Serendipitously, after presenting a poster in Belgium at a conference, she was invited to the University of California-Davis (UC-Davis) as a visiting scholar in 2007. From then on, she became a professor and researcher at UC-Davis in Food Science and Technology, and is still advancing her career there to this day. Past Research Projects With a thorough catalogue of research initiatives, Dr. Barile has tackled numerous questions in the food science field. Some examples — in a list of many more — are her research on identifying bioactive compounds in dairy milk and side streams , which are unused byproducts of food after production (Bambridge-Sutton, 2023) . Dr. Barile, using her expertise in bioactive compounds from her Ph.D., analyzed the side streams such as grape pomace , or the solid fruit residues such as seeds, skin, and flesh that are left from producing grape juice or wine, as well as chickpea and bean aquafaba , or the liquid produced from cooking the legumes. In 2021, Barile and her team studied chardonnay marc, also known as grape pomace from the wine chardonnay. Living in California, the largest wine-producing state in the United States, she identified that the wine industry produced large amounts of agricultural waste every year (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2020 as cited in Sinrod et al., 2021 ).  Figure 2. Graphic of Grape Pomace (“Unveiling the Hidden Health”, 2024) Previous studies have demonstrated that grape skin and seeds are rich in polyphenols , a category of bioactive compounds found in plant foods (“What Do Polyphenols”, n.d.) , which can benefit human health by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammatory markers ( Zern et al., 2005  as cited in S inrod et al., 2021 ). With her team, Dr. Barile wanted to investigate whether there were other compounds that contributed to the health benefits that were mainly credited to the polyphenols in chardonnay marc. So she turned to oligosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are indigestible carbohydrates, known as prebiotics , or food for good gut-microbes that maintain good gut health (“Oligosaccharides”, 2022) . Before, oligosaccharides were not studied in depth due to previous lack of technology needed for analysis (Sinrod et al., 2021) . In her study, Dr. Barile’s team identified significant levels of oligosaccharides and phenolic compounds , which are compounds with anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (Albuquerque et al., 2021) . Their findings are important because they give greater context to how chardonnay marc and grape pomace in general can be repurposed and valorized for nutritional value. More recently in 2024, Barile explored oligosaccharide content in bean and chickpea aquafaba. Beans and chickpeas are legumes , which are known for their dietary fiber and protein content, and they are one of the staple foods in many cultures around the world (Huang et al., 2024) . To further their knowledge, Barile and her team sought to dive deeper into the oligosaccharide and peptide composition of these legumes' aquafaba. They initially hypothesized that there would be oligosaccharides and peptides beneficial to human health in the legumes. Using laboratory techniques such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), they identified various health-benefiting oligosaccharides and peptides, supporting their original hypothesis (Huang et al., 2024) . Continuing with her oligosaccharide research, Dr. Barile and her team even created a comprehensive database for oligosaccharides in mammalian milk, totaling to 3193 entries for 783 distinct oligosaccharide structures from 77 different species. Their research created a database titled "MilkOligoDB," organizing data from 113 publications and over five decades of research (Durham et al., 2023) . Their work provides valuable, easy-access data for future oligosaccharide research, where previous oligosaccharide profiles were more difficult to locate.  Current Research Projects Dr. Barile continues to pursue novel research in her field. In a recent interview with Dr. Barile, she emphasized the importance of fiber intake and its connection to a healthy gut microbiome. The gut microbiome is an essential feature of human health that is responsible for many vital functions in the body. Maintaining a good balance of beneficial bacteria is essential. Dr. Barile expresses her concern that in today’s society, many consumers are “starving their gut microbiome.” But how does one feed the gut microbiome? The answer is fiber. Figure 3. Health Benefits of a Healthy Gut Microbiome and Connections to other Bodily Systems (Afzaal et al., 2022) Dietary fiber  is particularly important because it is made of many types of carbohydrates indigestible by the human digestive system. Because they are indigestible, they provide as food sources for commensal or beneficial bacteria in our gut. With more food to eat, the bacteria in our gut have enough resources to stay alive and support our digestive system and bodily processes. However, many modern convenience foods tend to be lower in dietary fiber, making it more difficult to consume enough on a daily basis. As grains are often refined (being stripped of the bran) and fiber is reduced during processing for texture or shelf life (Belluz, 2019) , fiber-rich options may not always be as readily available in typical packaged food choices. Dr. Barile hopes to dive deeper into fiber research and accessibility. One problem that is difficult to solve, she quotes, is that “fiber doesn’t taste great, and so people aren’t eating it.” She believes that alleviating this fiber famine will take a combination of healthy fiber and good-tasting products that consumers will purchase. But before that happens, some foods that are naturally high in fiber already are whole grains, legumes, apples, nuts, and leafy greens (“Fiber,” 2012) . Figure 4. Foods Naturally Rich in Dietary Fiber (“Fiber,” 2012) To add on to potential advancement in fiber research, Dr. Barile also plans to continue research on dairy and plant-based products. More can be found on her lab website . Advice to Young Scientists In a segment of an interview with Dr. Barile, the QuantYum Lab  team inquired ways that students can gain more education on food science and the impact that diet can have on health. She encourages students to take community college classes and request courses to be offered at local schools about nutritional literacy. For young scientists or individuals exploring STEM, Dr. Barile highly recommends gaining lab experience early. In the often convoluted path of finding a niche or area of interest, the best learning opportunities are gaining experience to find what ignites passion and fosters joy in the process. Key Takeaways From whole foods to streams, Dr. Barile’s projects on oligosaccharide research have contributed significantly to increasing the knowledge of food composition and are just tastes of her extensive career in research. What originally started as a goal in pharmaceutics blossomed into a fruitful profession as a professor and researcher at UC-Davis. Her advancements to the field contribute significantly to a broader understanding of how important food is to our daily lives. More than just a scientist, Dr. Barile serves as an inspiration for those interested in STEM and its intersection with food and health. References Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shah, Y. A., Hussain, M., Rabail, R., Socol, C. T., Hassoun, A., Pateiro, M., Lorenzo, J. M., Rusu, A. V., & Aadil, R. M. (2022). Human gut microbiota in health and disease: Unveiling the relationship. Frontiers in Microbiology , 13 .   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.999001 Bambridge-Sutton, A. (2023, October 17). ‘This stuff is so abundant’: The benefits of using side streams in food production . FoodNavigator.Com .   https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2023/10/17/the-benefits-of-using-side-streams-in-food-production/ Belluz, J. (2019, March 20). Nearly all Americans fail to eat enough of this actual superfood . Vox.   https://www.vox.com/2019/3/20/18214505/fiber-diet-weight-loss Câmara, J. S., Albuquerque, B. R., Aguiar, J., Corrêa, R. C. G., Gonçalves, J. L., Granato, D., Pereira, J. A. M., Barros, L., & Ferreira, I. C. F. R. (2021). Food Bioactive Compounds and Emerging Techniques for Their Extraction: Polyphenols as a Case Study. Foods , 10 (1), Article 1.   https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010037 Durham, S. D., Wei, Z., Lemay, D. G., Lange, M. C., & Barile, D. (2023). Creation of a milk oligosaccharide database, MilkOligoDB, reveals common structural motifs and extensive diversity across mammals. Scientific Reports , 13 (1), 10345.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36866-y Fiber. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Sources .   https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/carbohydrates/fiber/ Huang, Y.P., Masarweh, C., Paviani, B., Mills, D. A., & Barile, D. (2024). Exploring bioactive compounds in chickpea and bean aquafaba: Insights from glycomics and peptidomics analyses. Food Chemistry , 460 , 140635.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140635 Sinrod, A. J. G., Li, X., Bhattacharya, M., Paviani, B., Wang, S. C., & Barile, D. (2021). A second life for wine grapes: Discovering potentially bioactive oligosaccharides and phenolics in chardonnay marc and its processing fractions. LWT , 144 , 111192.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111192 Teodoro, A. J. (2019). Bioactive Compounds of Food: Their Role in the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity , 2019 , 3765986.   https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3765986 Zern, T. L., & Fernandez, M. L. (2005). Cardioprotective Effects of Dietary Polyphenols1. The Journal of Nutrition , 135 (10), 2291–2294.   https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.10.2291 Oligosaccharides: Foods List, Benefits, and More. (2022, April 4). Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/oligosaccharides Statins. (n.d.). [Text]. Medline Plus; National Library of Medicine. Retrieved July 27, 2025, from   https://medlineplus.gov/statins.html Unveiling the Hidden Health Treasures of Grape Pomace . (2024, March 11). WellVine.   https://wellvine.com/blogs/articles/unveiling-the-hidden-health-treasures-of-grape-pomace What Do Polyphenols Do for You? (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved July 29, 2025, from   https://health.clevelandclinic.org/polyphenols

Everyone has heard the saying "breakfast is the most important meal of the day," and there is truth behind it. In fact, people who regularly skip breakfast are 21% more likely to suffer from a cardiovascular disease event (Ofori-Asenso et al., 2019) . Meal-skipping has become more prominent over the last 40 years, as the average person has become increasingly busier. There has been a transition away from 3 set meals a day to snacking and varied mealtimes (Kant and Graubard, 2016) .  Additionally, when trying to improve health through food, few pay attention to or reduce unhealthy food habits related to the timing of meals. Instead, many focus solely on the content of their meals. Bad meal timing, specifically a schedule that isn’t matched to a person’s circadian rhythm, has surprisingly many consequences. This article explores why and how eating at the ‘wrong’ time impacts health, and how to reduce this impact. (Ferreira, 2019) Circadian Eating Rhythm What determines when the body is best primed to eat? It’s the body’s internal clock, the circadian rhythm , which determines sleep-cycles, hormone regulation, and digestion. A person’s unique circadian clock is determined by their exposure to light, which could be the sun or artificial light. When someone stays up late or wakes up early in the morning, their circadian clock is not aligned with light and will adjust over time. Timing of meals is so important, because all digestive organs have their own internal clocks, working more efficiently during the day, peaking on average around noon, and slowing down into the night. Additionally, the hormones released throughout the day, like insulin , ghrelin , and leptin , which manage sugar levels, hunger, and fullness, are all regulated by the circadian rhythm ("Circadian Rhythm", 2024)  The body prepares itself to eat during a certain period during the day and disrupting its natural timeline means the body undergoes increased strain during the digestive process.  (Smith, 2016) When Should You Eat? Generally, eating during the day while the body is naturally ready for it is considered the healthiest. However, there are still many meal timing structures that one can use depending on their goals. One of the most popular of these is time restricted eating or intermittent fasting . There are many variations of these including eating all meals in an early 8 hour window, restricting calorie intake 2 of the 7 days of the week, alternate day fasting, etc. (Snyder, 2023) .  These methods have been extremely successful in weight-loss, as the body has a higher metabolism and is more insulin-sensitive in the morning and afternoon so less fat is stored, blood sugar levels are controlled, and energy usage of food is more efficient. (Lee et al., 2024) . Also, as all these eating patterns focus on eating earlier in the day, the digestive system does not need to work during the night and sleep quality is improved. Key Takeaways The human body is built to eat meals at certain time periods throughout the day based on its circadian rhythm. The exact time of meals depends from person to person and it can be optimized by experimenting with different meal timings and seeing what feels the best. Although eating a late-night meal or skipping breakfast once won’t permanently damage you, doing so over a period of months and years will increase the risk of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Next time you’re planning a meal, remember it's not just what you eat that matters, but also when you eat it. References Circadian Rhythm . (2024). Cleveland Clinic.   https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/circadian-rhythm Ferreira, Â. (2019, July 26). Meal timing and weight loss: Is there a relationship? Blog Oficial Zumub.Com .   https://www.zumub.com/blog/en/meal-timing-weight-loss-relationship/ Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2015). 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics , 115 (1), 50–63.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.354 Lee, D. Y., Jung, I., Park, S. Y., Yu, J. H., Kim, K. J., Kim, N. H., Yoo, H. J., Kim, S. G., Choi, K. M., Baik, S. H., & Kim, N. H. (n.d.). Attention to Innate Circadian Rhythm and the Impact of Its Disruption on Diabetes . Retrieved July 20, 2025, from   https://www.e-dmj.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.4093%2Fdmj.2023.0193 Ofori-Asenso, R., Owen, A. J., & Liew, D. (2019). Skipping Breakfast and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Death: A Systematic Review of Prospective Cohort Studies in Primary Prevention Settings. Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease , 6 (3), 30.   https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd6030030 Smith, Y. (2016, March 6). What is the Circadian Rhythm?  News-Medical.   https://www.news-medical.net/health/Circadian-Rhythm.aspx Snyder, C. (2023, June 21). Intermittent Fasting Methods Reviewed: Pros and Cons . Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/6-ways-to-do-intermittent-fasting

The TV dinner has been a staple of many American households since the 1950s. Swanson, a food company, turned this idea into a commercial success by applying food science to improve meal design. Through innovations in freezing and reheating methods, they created convenient meals that were accessible and appealing to all kinds of Americans. Origin In late 1953, Swanson had 260 tons of frozen turkey left over from Thanksgiving in refrigerated railroad cars. Gerry Thomas, a salesman at the food company, had the idea to serve the turkey along with other frozen holiday foods such as cornbread stuffing and sweet potatoes in compartmentalized aluminum trays. These trays would be heated in the oven and enjoyed as a convenient meal (Biakolo & Sexton, 2020) . Figure 1. The Swanson turkey TV dinner from the 1960s (Wade, 2015) . According to some accounts, Thomas was inspired by a meal, served in a similar tray, that he consumed on a Pan American Airways flight. The first of these trays had been developed and used by United Airlines beginning in 1937. In the 1940s, other food companies began selling similar products in grocery stores, but they hadn’t achieved the same popularity that Swanson’s meals would soon have (Kiger, 2013) . Cultural Significance The TV dinner arrived at the perfect time. By the mid-1950s, technology was revolutionizing the domestic sphere, making it easier for women to enter the workforce. Appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, and electric irons saved women hours of household labor (Berger, 2019) . Additionally, many women had taken up jobs traditionally held by men during World War II. Though most of these women lost their jobs after the war ended, they had broken a cultural norm that made it easier for them to enter the workforce in the 1950s ("Women in the Work Force", 2016) . With many women no longer at home to cook elaborate meals, the Swanson TV dinner was an easy solution. Families could simply heat their meals and enjoy them together in front of the television, a relatively new and increasingly popular fixture in the home (Allen & Thompson, 2009) . Due to demand, companies even began to sell folding TV tables, which consumers could place the hot aluminum trays on (Kiger, 2013) . Figure 2. The Reagans eating dinner from TV trays (Komar, 2019) . The Science of Frozen Food Swanson’s TV dinners would not have been possible without scientific innovations in freezing and reheating food. Freezing is a process during which the water inside cells crystallizes and immobilizes other molecules, stopping all biological processes and preserving food. However, while freezing meats and vegetables, the growing ice crystals puncture the cell membranes. Due to the damage, the food would be soggy when reheated later. In 1922, naturalist Clarence Birdseye discovered that freezing food would rapidly result in the growth of small ice crystals, which wouldn’t damage the cell membranes. Companies like Swanson later utilized this method of flash freezing to preserve the original textures of foods (Gust, 2011). Figure 3. Clarence Birdseye, the discoverer of the flash freezing method, preparing food for dehydration experiments (Byrne, 2022) . Additionally, different foods have different heat capacities and thermal conductivities, meaning they absorb and transfer heat at different rates. Ineffective reheating could leave some bacteria alive and potentially harm consumers. Swanson’s bacteriologist, Betty Cronin, designed their TV dinners so that each component of the meal could be heated to its optimal taste in the same amount of time. She modified portion sizes, optimized tray layouts, and conducted many tests to develop the best formulas for frozen foods (Randle, 2021) . Key Takeaways The success of the TV dinner was a product of culture and technology. As traditional gender roles in the home evolved, Swanson responded to the growing demand for convenient meals. For many Americans, TV dinners remain a nostalgic reminder of family evenings spent gathered in front of the television. References Allen, S., & Thompson, R. J. (2009). Television in the United States—Late Golden Age, Broadcasting, Programming . Britannica.   https://www.britannica.com/art/television-in-the-United-States/The-late-Golden-Age Berger, M. W. (2019, January 30). How the appliance boom moved more women into the workforce | Penn Today . Penn Today.   https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/how-appliance-boom-moved-more-women-workforce Biakolo, K., & Sexton, C. (2020, November). A Brief History of the TV Dinner . Smithsonian Magazine.   https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/brief-history-tv-dinner-180976039/ Byrne, K. J. (2022, September 30). Meet Clarence Birdseye: American who cooked up frozen foods . New York Post.   https://nypost.com/2022/09/30/meet-clarence-birdseye-american-who-cooked-up-frozen-foods/ Debczak, M. (2023, February 27). How the TV Dinner Revolutionized American Life . Mental Floss.   https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/651796/tv-dinners-food-history Gust, L. (2011). Defrosting dinner: The evolution of frozen meals in America . MIT – Intersect, 4 (1). Kiger, P. J. (2013, February 28). 10 Breakthroughs in TV Dinners . HowStuffWorks.   https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/10-breakthroughs-in-tv-dinners.htm Komar, M. (2019, November 17). A Brief History of the TV Tray Table . Apartment Therapy.   https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/tv-tray-history-background-36664929 Randle, A. (2021, February 24). Who Invented the TV Dinner?  HISTORY.   https://www.history.com/articles/tv-dinner-history-inventor Wade, L. (2015, November 23). Thanksgiving, the first TV dinner—Sociological Images. The Society Pages .   https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2015/11/23/thanksgiving-dinner-by-swanson/ Women in the Work Force during World War II . (2016, August 15). National Archives.   https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/wwii-women.html Thumbnail image: (Wade, 2015)

Artificial flavoring is ubiquitous in most food products on the food market. Originating from the high consumer demand for consistent flavoring that was agriculturally impossible to cultivate from natural ingredients, artificial flavoring has become one of the main sources of what we know as flavor today. Contrary to most beliefs, there are many common misconceptions about artificial flavorings, especially in comparison to natural flavorings. In reality, the barrier separating natural and artificial flavors is much smaller than most assume.  (Gritzer, 2025) Engineering Natural and Artificial Flavoring According to the FDA, artificial flavorings are substances not derived from plants, animals, or fermented products, that alter the flavor in food (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Natural flavorings , on the other hand, are extracted directly from plants, animals, and fermented products (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) . One distinct flavor is composed of many different components. In order to make a comprehensive flavor profile, both natural and artificial flavors must undergo engineering processes. The term “natural” and “artificial” merely differentiate by the raw ingredients used to make them (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . For example, natural lemon flavoring stems from citral , a chemical compound found in lemon peels, lemon myrtle, or even lemongrass. Artificial lemon flavoring is also made of citral, but the citral used originates from chemical isolates of previously inedible material (Huen, 2015) . Vanilla is another example. Vanilla, being one of the most highly demanded flavors, often appears in its artificial flavor form. This is due to a key compound, called vanillin which is present and isolated from byproducts of the paper industry or petroleum ( Lacy, 2024) . Examples like lemon and vanilla show that the difference between the two flavoring styles lies purely in which ingredients were used to make them (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . ("Natural Vs. Artificial", 2021) Myths of Natural vs. Artificial Flavors Myth: Artificial flavors are always harmful. Reality: Many artificial flavors are deemed safe by food safety authorities. Companies are kept in check by intensive inspection from beginning to end of production. Additionally, during storage, meticulous sanitary conditions are maintained to ensure safe results (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Myth: Natural flavors are healthier than artificial ones. Reality: Flavor, in itself, does not contribute any nutritional value to food consumed. With natural and artificial flavorings often having exactly the same chemical structure, consuming one or the other will not provide nutritional benefits or damage (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . To add on, despite many misconceptions that artificial flavorings are full of additives, natural flavors can also contain additives and be equally processed (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) .  Myth: Natural flavors are more sustainable than artificial flavors. Reality: Natural components used to produce natural flavorings require significantly more energy for processing and time than it would take to use artificial materials. In fact, emissions from growing, transporting, and processing natural ingredients significantly exceeds artificial flavoring (Tilley Distribution, 2023) . Myth: Natural flavors are not chemically engineered at all, only artificial flavors are. Reality: To make both natural and artificial flavors, molecular flavor engineers, known more formally as flavorists , first compile the combination of compounds found in a specific flavor. From that point forward, they match the chemical compounds responsible for each flavor with each other. Artificial flavoring is often the only accused flavoring source of “engineered flavor;” however, both natural and artificial flavoring undergo extensive engineering and food safety testing (“Natural and Artificial”, 2021) . Key Takeaways Besides the initial ingredients used to make them, natural and artificial flavoring share much of the same manufacturing processes. Although there are other factors to consider when approaching different foods, whether a package is naturally or artificially flavored may not give a comprehensive understanding of the product and how it was made. To consider its origin and purpose, artificial flavoring is essentially a tool used to ensure optimal and consistent flavor sustainably, accessibly, cost effectively, and safely. By understanding the chemistry and manufacturing process, consumers can approach various foods with more discretion and knowledge. References Gritzer, D. (2025, May 5). Here’s Why Natural and Artificial Flavors Aren’t What They Seem . Serious Eats.   https://www.seriouseats.com/natural-vs-artificial-flavors-11728636 Huen, E. (n.d.). What Manufacturers Really Mean By Natural And Artificial Flavors . Forbes. Retrieved July 13, 2025, from   https://www.forbes.com/sites/eustaciahuen/2015/10/01/what-manufacturers-really-mean-by-natural-artificial-flavors-according-to-museum-of-food-drink/ Lacy. (2024, September 10). What’s Up With Artificial Flavors? Organic Authority . https://www.organicauthority.com/health/what-are-artificial-flavors Natural and Artificial Flavors . (2021, July 26).   https://nutrisci.wisc.edu/2021/07/26/natural-and-artificial-flavors/ Natural Vs. Artificial Flavors . (2021, April 21). Flavorman.   https://www.flavorman.com/media/natural-and-artificial-flavors-how-are-they-different Tilley Distribution. (2023, May 26). How Are Artificial Flavors Made? Tilley Distribution .   https://www.tilleydistribution.com/insights/creating-artificial-flavors-the-science-of-good-taste/ Thumbnail image: (Gritzer, 2025)

There are five types of tastes. Everyone is familiar with the first four - sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. However, the umami taste has only recently gained spotlight in popular western kitchens. But this rich and savory flavor has been the core of many types of cuisine around the world for centuries. Examples of Umami Foods (Godbole, 2025) . What Is Umami? Umami is a Japanese word that means “pleasant savory taste,” and it was first identified in the early 1900s by chemist Kikunae Ikeda. He found that the amino acid glutamate, which is found in abundance in foods such as seaweed, meat, or tomatoes, creates a deeply satisfying flavor, much different from the other four tastes ( Paul-Gera, 2021 ) . Later research confirmed that human tongues actually have receptors built specifically for glutamate, making umami an officially recognized fifth taste. Another interesting fact is that there are also glutamate receptors in the stomach, which signal to the brain to initiate digestive responses ( "What Is Umami", n.d. ) . Other foods such as parmesan cheese, soy sauce, mushrooms or aged meats trigger a mouthwatering sensation we now know as “umami” ( Yamaguchi & Ninomiya, 2000 ) . Seaweed as an Example of a Food with Rich Umami Flavor (Heffelfinger, 2022) . Why do we need Umami? Umami is an important factor in how we experience flavor and taste. It boosts both satisfaction and fullness while eating, making meals a lot more enjoyable with extra ingredients. For these reasons, chefs often use umami-rich ingredients to create flavor in broth and slow cooked dishes. Outside of restaurants, the food industry has also used umami to reduce sodium while maintaining good taste. Outside of cuisine, researchers have also explored umami’s potential in appetite control, especially among older adults with declining taste buds ( Ninomiya, 2015 ) . A Vegetarian, Umami Dish ( Sevier, 2020 ) Key Takeaways Umami is much more than a cool word being thrown around to describe a new taste. It has been around for as long as humanity existed. Whether it’s grilled meat or tomatoes, umami is everywhere once you know where to look. References Godbole, N. (2025, April 30). What Is Umami? 12 Foods with Umami You’ll Want to Try. Reader’s Digest . https://www.rd.com/list/13-foods-with-natural-umami/ Heffelfinger, J. (2022, November 17). How to Use Dried Seaweed Sheets . Food & Wine. https://www.foodandwine.com/news/nori-cooking-tips Ninomiya, K. (2015). Science of umami taste: Adaptation to gastronomic culture. Flavour , 4 (1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2044-7248-4-13 Paul-Gera, K. (2021, July 30). Umami: The fifth taste . Mosa Meat. https://mosameat.com/blog/what-is-umami Sevier, J. (2020, January 21). Umami-Boosting Secrets From 5 Great Vegetarian Cooks . Epicurious. https://www.epicurious.com/expert-advice/umami-boosting-ingredients-vegetarian-cooking-ideas-article What is Umami . (n.d.). Umami Information Center. Retrieved July 14, 2025, from https://www.umamiinfo.com/ Yamaguchi, S., & Ninomiya, K. (2000). Umami and food palatability. The Journal of Nutrition , 130 (4S Suppl), 921S-6S.   https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.4.921 Thumbnail image: ( Sevier, 2020 ).

It is a common misconception that height is purely genetic. Parents’ height genes only determine 80% of their children’s height; the other 20% comes from environmental factors such as sleep, nutrition, and activity levels. This is why most children end up growing within 3 inches of the mid-parental height (the average of their parents’ heights) ("The Genetics of Height", 2022) .  Yet, over the past century, the average height of both men and women has been increasing. According to CBS, from 1896 to 1996, the average U.S. male height increased from 5 foot 6 inches to 5 foot 8 inches (Mitchell, 2025) . This increase in height from generation to generation is mainly due to increasingly better nutrition worldwide. So, food plays some role in determining height, and this article will further explore this relationship. A normal curve showing the general height distribution of the human population (Bicknell et al., 2025) How do people grow Taller in the first place? Growing taller is simply the lengthening of bones. On all the body’s long bones (femur, humerus, metacarpals, etc.) there are growth plates; bands of cartilage near the ends of the bones. These plates contain chondrocytes (cartilage cells), that first multiply, enlarge, then finally die off and get replaced by bone (proliferation, hypertrophy, then ossification). This process happens rapidly during infancy, happens at a slower rate during childhood, increases again during puberty, and finally declines in adulthood, eventually stopping completely. (Jee & Baron, 2017)  What causes the growth plates to activate at these rates is the amount of growth hormone, or somatotropin . Somatotropin is created in the pituitary gland and is released in bursts during intense exercise and deep sleep. Finally, the most important building blocks of bone are vitamin D and calcium, which work together to form the bone during a process called ossification , or bone tissue formation. Diet plays a role in this process by providing these necessary nutrients – something explored more in detail below (Branch, 2023) . A diagram of proliferation, hypertrophy, and ossification (Hasan et al., 2024) . What foods can contribute to height? Again, the body needs Vitamin D and Calcium to build the bone. It also needs enough calories to provide energy for all of the processes related to growth. As long as a diet has enough of all three of these, the specific food won’t matter. Still, some foods that are rich in all three of these are fish, egg yolk, and milk. A good rule of thumb is that most seafood has high levels of vitamin D, while most dairy products have high levels of calcium. (Shepard, 2024) .  When planning a diet, it is important to remember not to intake too much of any of these nutrients. An excess of any of these can be dangerous, and only up to a certain amount will support growth. Key Takeaways A person’s maximum possible height is determined by genetics, but to reach that height requires good sleep, physical activity, and most importantly a balanced and nutritious diet. But these good habits can’t change height once the growth plates have closed; on average growth plates close around 15 years old for girls and 17 years old for boys  ("When does", 2024) . Most people can’t naturally grow taller after these ages. Still, it is important to learn about how to support proper growth as current or potential parents – to ensure the next generation has the best possible conditions to reach their full growth potential through proper nutrition, sleep, and healthy lifestyle habits during their growth years. References Bicknell, L. S., Hirschhorn, J. N., & Savarirayan, R. (2025). The genetic basis of human height. Nature Reviews Genetics , 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-025-00834-1 Branch, N. S. C. and O. (2023, May 5). Calcium and Vitamin D: Important for Bone Health . National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases; NIAMS. https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/calcium-and-vitamin-d-important-bone-health Hasan, S., Naseer, S., Zamzam, M., Mohilldean, H., Van Wagoner, C., Hasan, A., Saleh, E. S., Uhley, V., & Kamel-ElSayed, S. (2024). Nutrient and Hormonal Effects on Long Bone Growth in Healthy and Obese Children: A Literature Review. Children , 11 (7), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11070817 Jee, Y. H., & Baron, J. (2016, March 26). The Biology of Stature—PMC . NIH. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4884478/ Mitchell, K. (2025, April 3). Are humans getting taller? Here’s what the data says. - CBS Minnesota . CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/why-people-are-getting-taller/   Shepard, S. (2024, May 21). Calcium and Vitamin D: Top Food Sources . WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/calcium-vitamin-d-foods The genetics of height . (2022, October 26). Medicover Genetics. https://medicover-genetics.com/the-genetics-of-height/ When does growth cartilage close?  (2024, December 26). Vinmec International Hospital. https://www.vinmec.com/eng/blog/when-does-the-growth-plate-close-en

How did the calorie become the standard unit to measure the energy of food? Originally used by scientists, it made its way onto nutritional labels to allow customers to understand the foods they consumed. However, calories alone cannot represent the full intricacies of how the body processes energy from food. The Origin of the Calorie A calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C at standard atmospheric pressure. Because the amount of energy required depends on the temperature of the water, it was necessary to specify the 15° calorie: the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C ("Calorie " , n.d.) . The calories listed on nutritional labels are actually kilocalories, each equal to 1000 scientific calories. This reason is why they are typically labeled as “kcal”; in the United States and Canada, the term “calorie” often refers to a kilocalorie and is abbreviated as “Cal” (Van De Walle, 2024) . Originally, a calorimeter was used to measure the calorie content of a food. With its water content evaporated, food would be placed in a container surrounded by water. The container would then be sealed, and the food ignited by piping in oxygen. Afterwards, the calorie content would be calculated by the rise in temperature of the surrounding water (Schwarcz, 2018) . Figure 1. A modern calorimeter ("Electric Calorimeter", n.d.) . How Calories are Counted Now The calorimeter is rarely used to measure calories today. In fact, most calorie values are estimated from the Atwater system, which prescribes calorie amounts for different types of nutrients. Specifically, there are 4 calories per gram of protein, 4 calories per gram of carbohydrate, 9 calories per gram of fat, and 7 calories per gram of alcohol. These values were determined by averaging many trials of burning. Since carbohydrates contain some fiber, which is undigested, the fiber is subtracted from the total carbohydrate content to calculate the calories. (Painter, 2006) Figure 2. Nutrition label of chicken breast ("Boneless", 2025) . Inaccuracies in CaloriE Counting The Atwater system does not account for many processes that affect the total calorie count of a food. Some of these factors include the cooking method, processing, and digestibility of the food. In a study at Harvard University, researchers found that mice gained more weight when fed cooked foods than raw foods, suggesting that the mice processed more calories from the cooked foods. The heat from cooking begins to break down proteins, improving the digestibility of food. It also kills bacteria, reducing the energy the immune system needs to use to fight against any pathogens (Dunn, 2013) . Different individuals may also process the same amount of calories in different ways based on their gut microbiome. Studies have shown that overweight individuals have different types of organisms in their gut than those who are naturally thin; in fact, transferring the microbiota of lean people to those who are overweight may result in weight changes ("Stop Counting", 2020) . Additionally, researchers in the 1900s discovered that some Russian populations had longer large intestines than some Polish populations, meaning that a Russian person could get more energy than a Polish person from the same amount of calories (Dunn, 2013) . These many biological differences mean that calorie counting is unique to every individual. Figure 3. The gut microbiome (Bahorsky, 2022) Key Takeaways Though nutrition labels provide a convenient estimate, they do not reflect the complex process of digestion or individual biological differences. Cooking, gut microbiomes, and even differences in anatomy can change how an individual absorbs food. By understanding the method of calorie counting and its flaws, people may approach their own health and nutrition with more awareness. References Bahorsky, R. (2022, December 13). Discovery Will Aid Gut-Microbiome Research Efforts . College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia. https://as.virginia.edu/discovery-will-aid-gut-microbiome-research-efforts Boneless, Skinless Chicken Breasts, 4.7-6.1 lb Tray . (n.d.). Walmart. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.walmart.com/ip/Boneless-Skinless-Chicken-Breasts-4-7-6-1-lb-Tray/27935840 Calorie . (n.d.). Britannica. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.britannica.com/science/calorie Dunn, R. (2013, September 1). Science Reveals Why Calorie Counts Are All Wrong . Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-reveals-why-calorie-counts-are-all-wrong/ Electric Calorimeter . (n.d.). Thomas Scientific. Retrieved July 5, 2025, from https://www.thomassci.com/p/electric-calorimeter Painter, J. (2006, July 31). How Do Food Manufacturers Calculate the Calorie Count of Packaged Foods?  Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-food-manufacturers/ Schwarcz, J. (2018, September 6). How is the caloric value of food determined?  | Office for Science and Society—McGill University . McGill. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/nutrition/how-caloric-value-food-determined Stop counting calories . (2020, October 1). Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/stop-counting-calories Van De Walle, G. (2024, October 29). What’s the Difference Between Kcal and Calories?  Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/kcal-vs-calories Thumbnail: photographed by Diana Polekhina

In school, most students are told that there are 5 distinct senses: sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. Although these senses are distinct, this generalization does not take into consideration that in order to perceive the world fully, multiple senses must combined at once. Perceiving taste is just one example. Flavor is most widely known to be perceived through tastebuds; however, smell actually contributes to 75-95% of the full sensation of taste ( Wood, 2024 ) . The Basics of Tastebuds There are five basic sensations that taste papillae (larger complexes that contain taste buds and detect taste) can pick up: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and savory (AKA umami). Humans typically sense these basic tastes after saliva breaks down food into detectable compounds that bind to the taste papillae receptors on our tongue ( "In Brief", 2023 ) . These receptors then travel up nerves to our brain, which processes the taste stimulus. The problem, however, is that taste papillae are only capable of communicating to the brain these five basic tastes. The true nuance and distinction of different flavors is actually sensed by olfactory receptors in the nose ( Rohland 2017 ) . ( "In Brief", 2023 ) The Role of Smell in Flavor Perception The nose, being far more detailed in detecting and distinguishing between thousands of different odors, is the true hub of flavor detection. After food is broken down through chewing and chemical breakdown, volatile compounds, or odor compounds from the food, can travel up the rear junction of the mouth and nose ( Rohland, 2017 ) . These odor molecules are typically assisted up from the mouth to the nose during brief exhalations while eating. This concept is called retronasal olfaction ( Ni et al., 2015 ) . Examples of foods where smell highly amplifies flavor are chocolate and coffee ( Wood, 2024 ) . Link Why Both Taste and Smell? If our taste papillae evolved to detect taste, why is still such a strong contributor to taste? Taste and smell working in tandem actually results from evolutionary strategies for survival. To avoid consuming poisonous substances, smell helps our body detect potentially harmful foods. Recently, there has also been studies shown that smell helps regulate digestion. Olfactory receptors in addition to sensing different odors, also stimulates gastric juices, preparing our body to start digestion (Giduck et al., 1987 as cited in Wood, 2024 ). Smell also helps us distinguish calorie and nutrient rich foods from non-rich foods, which is beneficial in times of survival ( Wood, 2024 ) . ( Fine & Riera, 2019 ) Interactive: Try Testing Yourself To test just how much smell affects your perception of taste, quickly eat something but plug your nose when you chew. Notice how you can tell between the five different basic tastes (salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and savory) but not exactly pinpoint the full flavor? This is due to you limiting the olfactory signal to the brain! So cool! Key Takeaways Flavor is multifaceted, and it is extremely intriguing to see that our sense of smell is a huge component of taste. By understanding retronasal olfaction and the nuance behind different flavors, the you can enhance your eating experience and be more mindful about the wonderful world of flavors! References Fine, L. G., & Riera, C. E. (2019). Sense of Smell as the Central Driver of Pavlovian Appetite Behavior in Mammals. Frontiers in Physiology , 10 , 1151. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01151 Giduck, S.A., Threatte, R.M. and Kare, M.R., 1987. Cephalic reflexes: their role in digestion and possible roles in absorption and metabolism. The Journal of nutrition, 117(7), pp.1191-1196 In brief: How does our sense of taste work? (2023). In InformedHealth.org [Internet] . Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ Ni, R., Michalski, M. H., Brown, E., & Shepherd, G. M. (2015, November 9). Optimal directional volatile transport in retronasal olfaction | PNAS . https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1511495112 Rohland, L. (2017). Taste bud . https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/taste-bud Wood, C. (2024, November 12). How does smell affect the way we experience food?   https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/how-does-smell-affect-the-way-we-experience-food

What’s in Your Pre-Workout? Pre-workouts are a potent mix of supplements that boost performance before exercise. Most contain a blend of caffeine, amino acids, and other performance enhancers. Beta-alanine is among the most common ingredients in most major brands’ mixes. What is Beta-alanine and how does it help? Beta-alanine is an amino acid commonly found in meat like beef and pork ( CarnoSyn, 2024 ) . When consumed through supplements - higher doses than the trace amounts found in meat - beta-alanine's effect intensify significantly. Beta-alanine’s main job is to help muscles fight off strain and fatigue. Increasing the carnosine levels, which are the combination of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine in your body, extends how long muscles can perform under pressure by reducing lactic acid buildup during exercise ( Trexler et al., JISSN , 2015 ) . High-intensity exercises like sprinting and lifting are where beta-alanine benefits athletes the most. A 2017 study found that supplements, including beta-alanine, can significantly affect an exercise with shorter intervals compared to one with longer or intermittent intervals (Saunders et al., Br J Sports Med , 2017). Link Caution! One common side effect of taking beta-alanine is paresthesia, the tingling sensation you feel under your skin. Paresthesia might feel weird for athletes when working out, but it is entirely harmless ( Preiato, 2025 ) . Some might find it energizing, while others may find it distracting. The dosing and timing can help manage this - a smaller serving diluted with more water can reduce paresthesia while maintaining the intended effect. Still, experts have warned that not all pre-workouts are created equal. Some products are loaded with questionable amounts of stimulants, sugar, or even unregulated additives. As Harvard Health Publishing warns, many supplements bypass FDA approval and may potentially harm users ( Harvard Health Publishing, 2018 ). Link : taking pre-workout Key Takeaways Beta-alanine is a beneficial amino acid that is in most pre-workout products. There should be great care for the dosage and the specifics of what goes into your body, but when used right, beta-alanine can boost athletic performances to the next level. Link : visualization of when you take pre References CarnoSyn. (2024, January 24). What are top food sources for beta-alanine?   https://www.carnosyn.com/what-is-the-best-food-source-for-obtaining-beta-alanine/ Harvard Health Publishing. (2018, July 18). The hidden dangers of protein powders .   https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-hidden-dangers-of-protein-powders Preiato, D. (2025, May 8). 5 side effects of pre-workout supplements . Healthline.   https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/pre-workout-side-effects Saunders, B., et al. (2017). β-Alanine supplementation to improve exercise capacity and performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Br J Sports Med , 51(8), 658–669. Trexler, E. T., et al. (2015). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine . JISSN , 12(30).   https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y Widener, R. (2024, December 16). Should You Take Pre-Workout Supplements?  Health.   https://www.health.com/pre-workout-7106089

Human’s diets have been continuously changing since prehistoric times. From hunter-gatherers to farmers to the industrial scale food is produced at in the modern world, humans have transitioned from searching for food to creating it in abundance  ( Gardner, 2023 ) . For many, this modern lifestyle has introduced new problems; overeating and food addiction. These drug-like properties of food are explored in this article.   Link Food vs. Drugs’ Effects on Neurotransmitters  Drugs are known for and misused because of their addictiveness and perceived "euphoria" after consumption. One way to directly compare food and drugs is how they impact the brain and more specifically their role in the release of neurotransmitters (NTs). Two major NT’s that are produced and/or mimicked from drug use and generate the feeling of pleasure in users, are serotonin and dopamine. Both are “happy hormones” which play a role in mood, well-being, and motivation . ( Drugs and the Brain, 2020 ) . Foo d intake also releases these mood-affecting chemicals in the brain. According to Harvard Health Publishing, 95% of serotonin is produced in your gastrointestinal tract and is influenced by the “good” bacteria in the gut. A diet high in processed foods, sugar, and saturated fats reduces the “good” bacteria leading to imbalances in serotonin production and mood changes. ( Selhub, 2022 ) . Like serotonin, dopamine is produced in both the brain and gut when food intake occurs. This feeling of ‘reward’ is created by the brain to further encourage eating, reinforcing a survival behavior.  ( Gasmi et al., 2022 )  Although this reward response is less severe than drugs, food impacts the same areas of the brain as drugs do, demonstrating their similarities.  Drug or Not?  This question of whether food is a drug or not is a current debate in the scientific community. Those who believe food is a drug argue that food addiction occurs due to the same chemical processes as drug addiction. They both release dopamine and serotonin, which explains their pleasurable and habit-forming characteristics. Additionally, food can be harmful like drugs if one does not take it in the right quantity or has an unbalanced diet.  ( Robinson, 2022 )  On the other hand, those who argue food is not a drug, mention how food is necessary for survival, cravings are the product of deprivation, and the magnitude of the NT’s response is significantly lower for food intake when compared to drug usage. More specifically, that this ‘addiction’ to food is due to dieting and social pressures altering existing habits  ( Why Food is Not Addictive: Breaking Down the Myth, n.d. ) .  Link Key Takeaways Food, in the literal definition of a drug - a substance which has a physiological effect when in the body - falls under this definition. Yet, reputable medical organizations like the FDA explicitly exclude it  ( Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms, FDA ) . Because food is not as harmful as drugs, even though it activates the brain’s NT’s in the same way, it is not universally recognized as a drug. Over the past century though, as more processed foods enter and become the main source of calories, food will become increasingly dangerous. In the future, this definition will evolve as our eating habits continue to change. Food’s likeness to a drug depends on how you use it: Do you live to eat, or eat to live?  References Abuse, N. I. on D. (2020, July 6). Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction: Drugs and the Brain | NIDA .   https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain Gardner, G. (2023, June 1). Food: Abundant for How Long? food abundance. Center for the Advancement of the Steady State Economy . Gasmi, A., Nasreen, A., Menzel, A., Benahmed, A. G., Pivina, L., Noor, S., Peana, M., Chirumbolo, S., & Bjorklund, G. (2022, December 26). Neurotransmitters Regulation and Food Intake: The Role of Dietary Sources in Neurotransmission .   https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/1/210 https://steadystate.org/food-abundant-for-how-long/ MD, E. S. (2015, November 16). Nutritional psychiatry: Your brain on food . Harvard Health.   https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/nutritional-psychiatry-your-brain-on-food-201511168626 Research, C. for D. E. and. (2023). Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms. FDA .   https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvals-and-databases/drugsfda-glossary-terms Robinson, M. (2022, July 18). Eating ourselves to death: How food is a drug and what food abuse costs—Matthew Robinson, 2022 . Sage Journals.   https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/20503245221112577 The Pure Food and Drug Act: From History to Modern Regulations . (2022, September 7).   https://www.digicomply.com/blog/the-pure-food-and-drug-act Why Food is Not Addictive: Breaking Down the Myth—Wilder Wellness . (n.d.). Wilder Wellness. Retrieved June 22, 2025, from   https://www.wilderwellness.co/blog/why-food-is-not-addictive-breaking-down-the-myth Thumbnail: (Pure Food and Drug, n.d.)